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Chapter 6: Ocean storage 303 effect of high, non-determined CO2 levels was observed in deep- sea hagfish after CO2 exposure in situ (Tamburri et al., 2000). Prior to anaesthesia high CO2 levels can exert rapid effects on oxygen transport processes and thereby contribute to acute CO2 effects including early mortality. Figure 6.25 Preliminary investigations into the change of bacteria, nanobenthos and meiobenthos abundance after exposure to 20,000 and 5,000 ppm CO2 for 77 to 375 hr during three experiments carried out at 2,000 m depth in Nankai Trough, north-western Pacific. Error bars represent one standard deviation (Ishida et al. 2005). long history, with an emphasis on freshwater organisms (Wolff et al., 1988). Observed consequences of lowered water pH (at constant pCO2) include changes in production/productivity patterns in algal and heterotrophic bacterial species, changes in biological calcification/ decalcification processes, and acute and sub-acute metabolic impacts on zooplankton species, ocean bottom species, and fish. Furthermore, changes in the pH of marine environments affect: (1) the carbonate system, (2) nitrification (Huesemann et al., 2002) and speciation of nutrients such as phosphate, silicate and ammonia (Zeebe and Wolf-Gladrow, 2001), and (3) speciation and uptake of essential and toxic trace elements. Observations and chemical calculations show that low pH conditions generally decrease the association of metals with particles and increase the proportion of biologically available free metals (Sadiq, 1992; Salomons and Forstner, 1984). Aquatic invertebrates take up both essential and non-essential metals, but final body concentrations of metals vary widely across invertebrates. In the case of many trace metals, enhanced bioavailability is likely to have toxicological implications, since free forms of metals are of the greatest toxicological significance (Rainbow, 2002). 6.7.2.3 Acute CO sensitivity: oxygen transport in squid and fish CO2 accumulation and uptake can cause anaesthesia in many animal groups. This has been observed in deep-sea animals close to hydrothermal vents or experimental CO pools. A narcotic Among invertebrates, this type of CO2 sensitivity may be highest in highly complex, high performance organisms like squid (reviewed by Pörtner et al., 2004). Blue-blooded squid do not possess red blood cells (erythrocytes) to protect their extracellular blood pigment (haemocyanin) from excessive pH fluctuations. Acute CO2 exposure causes acidification of the blood, will hamper oxygen uptake and binding at the gills and reduce the amount of oxygen carried in the blood, limiting performance, and at high concentrations could cause death. Less oxygen is bound to haemocyanin in squid than is bound to haemoglobin in bony fish (teleosts). Jet-propulsion swimming of squid demands a lot of oxygen. Oxygen supply is supported by enhanced oxygen binding with rising blood pH (and reduced binding of oxygen with falling pH – a large Bohr effect3). Maximizing of oxygen transport in squid thus occurs by means of extracellular pH oscillations between arterial and venous blood. Therefore, finely controlled extracellular pH changes are important for oxygen transport. At high CO2 concentrations, animals can asphyxiate because the blood cannot transport enough oxygen to support metabolic functions. In the most active open ocean squid (Illex illecebrosus), model calculations predict acute lethal effects with a rise in pCO2 by 6500 ppm and a 0.25 unit drop in blood pH. However, acute CO2 sensitivity varies between squid species. The less active coastal squid (Loligo pealei) is less sensitive to added CO2. 2 3 The Bohr Effect is an adaptation in animals to release oxygen in the oxygen starved tissues in capillaries where respiratory carbon dioxide lowers blood pH. When blood pH decreases, the ability of the blood pigment to bind to oxygen decreases. This process helps the release of oxygen in the oxygen-poor environment of the tissues. Modified after ISCID Encyclopedia of Science and Philosophy. 2004. International Society for Complexity, Information, and Design. 12 October 2004PDF Image | CARBON DIOXIDE CAPTURE AND STORAGE
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