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Chapter 6: Ocean storage 311 6.9.4 Cost of carbonate neutralization approach References Adams, E., D. Golomb, X. Zhang, and H.J. Herzog, 1995: Confined release of CO2 into shallow seawater. Direct Ocean Disposal of Carbon Dioxide. N. Handa, (ed.), Terra Scientific Publishing Company, Tokyo, pp. 153-161. Adams, E., J. Caulfield, H.J. Herzog, and D.I. Auerbach, 1997: Impacts of reduced pH from ocean CO2 disposal: Sensitivity of zooplankton mortality to model parameters. Waste Management, 17(5-6), 375-380. Adams, E., M. Akai, G. Alendal, L. Golmen, P. Haugan, H.J. Herzog, S. Matsutani, S. Murai, G. Nihous, T. Ohsumi, Y. Shirayama, C. Smith, E. Vetter, and C.S. Wong, 2002: International Field Experiment on Ocean Carbon Sequestration (Letter). Environmental Science and Technology, 36(21), 399A. Akai, M., N. Nishio, M. Iijima, M. Ozaki, J. Minamiura, and T. Tanaka, 2004: Performance and Economic Evaluation of CO2 Capture and Sequestration Technologies. Proceedings of the Seventh International Conference on Greenhouse Gas Control Technologies. Akai, M., T. Kagajo, and M. Inoue, 1995: Performance Evaluation of Fossil Power Plant with CO2 Recovery and Sequestering System. Energy Conversion and Management, 36(6-9), 801-804. Alendal, G. and H. Drange, 2001: Two-phase, near field modelling of purposefully released CO2 in the ocean. Journal of Geophysical Research-Oceans, 106(C1), 1085-1096. Alendal, G., H. Drange, and P.M. Haugan, 1994: Modelling of deep- sea gravity currents using an integrated plume model. The Polar Oceans and Their Role in Shaping the Global Environment: The Nansen Centennial Volume, O.M. Johannessen, R.D. Muench, and J.E. Overland (eds.) AGU Geophysical Monograph, 85, American Geophysical Union, pp. 237-246. Anschutz, P. and G. Blanc, 1996: Heat and salt fluxes in the Atlantis II deep (Red Sea). Earth and Planetary Science Letters, 142, 147-159. Anschutz, P., G. Blanc, F. Chatin, M. Geiller, and M.-C. Pierret, 1999: Hydrographic changes during 20 years in the brine-filled basins of the Red Sea. Deep-Sea Research Part I 46(10) 1779-1792. Archer, D.E., 1996: An atlas of the distribution of calcium carbonate in sediments of the deep-sea. Global Biogeochemical Cycles, 10(1), 159-174. Archer, D.E., H. Kheshgi, and E. Maier-Reimer, 1997: Multiple timescales for neutralization of fossil fuel CO2. Geophysical Research Letters, 24(4), 405-408. Archer, D.E., H. Kheshgi, and E. Maier-Reimer, 1998: Dynamics of fossil fuel neutralization by Marine CaCO3. Global Biogeochemical Cycles, 12(2), 259-276. Arp, G., A. Reimer, and J. Reitner, 2001: Photosynthesis-induced biofilm calcification and calcium concentrations in Phanerozoic oceans. Science, 292, 1701-1704. Auerbach, D.I., J.A. Caulfield, E.E. Adams, and H.J. Herzog, 1997: Impacts of Ocean CO2 Disposal on Marine Life: I. A toxicological assessment integrating constant-concentration laboratory assay data with variable-concentration field exposure. Environmental Modelling and Assessment, 2(4), 333-343. Large-scale deployment of carbonate neutralization would require a substantial infrastructure to mine, transport, crush, and dissolve these minerals, as well as substantial pumping of seawater, presenting advantages for coastal power plants near carbonate mineral sources. There are many trade-offs to be analyzed in the design of an economically optimal carbonate-neutralization reactor along the lines of that described by Rau and Caldeira (1999). Factors to be considered in reactor design include water flow rate, gas flow rate, particle size, pressure, temperature, hydrodynamic conditions, purity of reactants, gas-water contact area, etc. Consideration of these factors has led to preliminary cost estimates for this concept, including capture, transport, and energy penalties, of 10 to 110 US$/tCO2 net stored (Rau and Caldeira, 1999). 6.9.5 Cost of monitoring and verification The cost of a monitoring and verification program could involve deploying and maintaining a large array of sensors in the ocean. Technology exists to conduct such monitoring, but a significant fraction of the instrument development and production is limited to research level activities. No estimate of costs for near-field monitoring for ocean storage have been published, but the costs of limited near-field monitoring would be small compared to the costs of ocean storage in cases of the scale considered in 6.9.2 and 6.9.3. Far field monitoring can benefit from international research programs that are developing global monitoring networks. 6.10 Gaps in knowledge The science and technology of ocean carbon storage could move forward by addressing the following major gaps: - Biology and ecology: Studies of the response of biological systems in the deep sea to added CO2, including studies that are longer in duration and larger in scale than yet performed. - Research facilities: Research facilities where ocean storage concepts (e.g., release of CO2 from a fixed pipe or ship, or carbonate-neutralization approaches) can be applied and their effectiveness and impacts assessed in situ at small-scale on a continuing basis for the purposes of both scientific research and technology development. - Engineering: Investigation and development of technology for working in the deep sea, and the development of pipes, nozzles, diffusers, etc., which can be deployed in the deep sea with assured flow and be operated and maintained cost-effectively. -Monitoring: Development of techniques and sensors to detect CO2 plumes and their biological and geochemical consequences.PDF Image | CARBON DIOXIDE CAPTURE AND STORAGE
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