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Chapter 9: Implications of carbon dioxide capture and storage for greenhouse gas inventories and accounting 375 table 9.2 Differences between forms of carbon storage with potential to influence accounting method. Property terrestrial biosphere Deep ocean Geological reservoirs CO2 sequestered or stored Stock changes can be monitored over time. Injected carbon can be measured Injected carbon can be measured Ownership Stocks will have a discrete location and can be associated with an identifiable owner. Stocks will be mobile and may reside in international waters. Stocks may reside in reservoirs that cross national or property boundaries and differ from surface boundaries. Management decisions Storage will be subject to continuing decisions about land- use priorities. Once injected, no further human decisions on maintenance. Once injected, human decisions to influence continued storage involve monitoring and perhaps maintenance, unless storage interferes with resource recovery. Monitoring Changes in stocks can be monitored. Changes in stocks will be modelled. Release of CO2 might be detected by physical monitoring but because of difficulty in monitoring large areas may also require modelling. Time scale with expected high values for fraction CO2 retained Decades, depending on management decisions. Centuries, depending on depth and location of injection. Very small physical leakage from well-designed systems expected, barring physical disruption of the reservoir. Physical leakage Losses might occur due to disturbance, climate change, or land-use decisions. Losses will assuredly occur as an eventual consequence of marine circulation and equili- bration with the atmosphere. Losses are likely to be small for well-designed systems except where reservoir is physically disrupted. Liability A discrete land-owner can be identified with the stock of sequestered carbon. Multiple parties may contribute to the same stock of stored carbon and the carbon may reside in international waters. Multiple parties may contribute to the same stock of stored carbon lying under several countries. At the other temporal extreme, Kheshgi et al. (199) point out that over the very long term of equilibration between the ocean and atmosphere (over 1000 years), capture and storage in the ocean will lead to higher CO2 levels in the atmosphere than without emissions controls, because of the additional energy requirements for operating the system. It is also true that chronic physical leakage over long time periods could increase the difficulty of meeting targets for net emissions at some time in the future (see Hawkins, 2003; Hepple and Benson, 2003; and Pacala, 2003). consider expected or modelled duration of storage, the utility of expiring, temporary, or rented credits over very long time periods, whether there is a need to consider different accounting practices as a function of expected duration of storage or mode of storage. The implications if storage in the terrestrial biosphere and in geological formations are sufficiently different that the former might be considered carbon management and the latter CO2 waste disposal. The fundamental question is then, how to deal with impermanent storage of CO2. Although Findsen et al. (2003) detail many circumstances where accounting for CCS is beginning or underway, and although the rates of physical leakage for well-designed systems may sometimes be in the range of the uncertainty of other components of emissions, the risks of physical leakage need to be acknowledged. A number of questions remains to be answered: how to deal with liability and continuity of institutions in perpetuity, how to quantify the benefits of temporary storage; the needs in terms of monitoring and verification, whether or not there is a need for a reserve of credits or other ways to assure that losses will be replaced, whether or not there is need for a system of discounting to Ultimately, the political process will decide the value of temporary storage and the allocation of responsibility for stored CO2. Some guidance is provided by precedents set by international agreements on sequestration in the terrestrial biosphere. But there are important differences to be considered. The reason for rules and policies is presumably to influence behaviour. Accounting rules for CO2 storage can best influence permanence if they are aimed accordingly: at liability for CO2 stored in the terrestrial biosphere but at the initial design and implementation requirements for CCS in the oceans or geological reservoirs.PDF Image | CARBON DIOXIDE CAPTURE AND STORAGE
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