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378 IPCC Special Report on Carbon dioxide Capture and Storage References Aukland, L., P. Moura Costa, and S. Brown, 2003: A conceptual framework and its application for addressing leakage: the case of avoided deforestation. Climate Policy, 3, 123-136. Chomitz, K.M., 2000: Evaluating carbon offsets for forestry and energy projects: how do they compare? World Bank Policy Research Working Paper 2357, New York, p. 25, see http:// wbln0018.worldbank.org/research/workpapers.nsf. Columbia ministry of the Environment, 2000: Expiring CERs, A proposal to addressing the permanence issue, pp. 23-26 in United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, UN-FCCC/ SBSTA/2000/MISC.8, available at www.unfccc.de. Davison, J.E., P. Freund, A. Smith, 2001: Putting carbon back in the ground, published by IEA Greenhouse Gas R&D Programme, Cheltenham, U.K. ISBN 1 898373 28 0. EEA, 2001: Joint EMEP/CORINAIR Atmospheric Emission Inventory Guidebook - 3rd Edition, Copenhagen: European Environment Agency, 2001. Findsen, J., C. Davies, and S. Forbes, 2003: Estimating and reporting GHG emission reductions from CO2 capture and storage activities, paper presented at the second annual conference on carbon sequestration, Alexandria, Virginia, USA, May -8, 2003, US Department of Energy, 1 pp. Gale, J., and J. Davison, 2002: Transmission of CO2: Safety and Economic Considerations, Proceedings of the 6th International Conference on Greenhouse Gas Control Technologies, 1- October, 2002, Kyoto, Japan. pp. 517-522. Gielen, D.J., 2003: Uncertainties in Relation to CO2 capture and sequestration. Preliminary Results. IEA/EET working Paper, March. Goldberg, P., R. Romanosky, Z.-Y. Chen, 2002: CO2 Mineral Sequestration Studies in US. Proceedings of the fifth international conference on greenhouse gas control technologies, 13-16 August 2000, Australia. Haefeli, S., M. Bosi, and C. Philibert, 200: Carbon dioxide capture and storage issues - accounting and baselines under the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change. IEA Information Paper. IEA, Paris, 36 p. Haines, M. et al., 200: Leakage under CDM/Use of the Clean Development Mechanism for CO2 Capture and Storage.Based on a study commisioned by the IEA GHG R&D Programme. Hawkins, D.G., 2003: Passing gas: policy implications of leakage from geologic carbon storage sites, pp. 29-2 in J. Gale and Y. Kaya (eds.) Greenhouse gas control technologies, proceedings of the 6th international conference on greenhouse gas control technologies, Pergamon Press, Amsterdam. Hepple, R.P. and S. M. Benson, 2003: Implications of surface seepage on the effectiveness of geologic storage of carbon dioxide as a climate change mitigation strategy, pp. 261-266 in J. Gale and Y. Kaya (eds.) Greenhouse gas control technologies, Proceedings of the 6th International Conference on Greenhouse Gas Control Technologies, Pergamon Press, Amsterdam. Herzog, H., K. Caldeira, and J. Reilly, 2003: An issue of permanence: assessing the effectiveness of temporary carbon storage, Climatic Change, 59 (3), 293-310. the project boundary, and that is measurable and attributable to the Article 6 project’. The term has been proposed for leakage of emissions resulting from capture, transport and injection, which should not be confused with releases of CO2 from a geological reservoir (escaped CO2). According to Haefeli et al. (200), current legislation does not deal with cross-border CCS projects and would need further clarification. Guidance would be especially needed to deal with cross-border projects involving CO2 capture in an Annex I country that is party to the Kyoto Protocol and storage in a country not party to the Kyoto Protocol or in an Annex I country not bound by the Kyoto Protocol. Table 9.3 provides an overview of the Kyoto mechanisms and the general principles and requirements of each (practical indices and specific accounting rules and procedures) for developing CCS accounting systems that can be employed for emissions control and reduction within these mechanisms. Although the political process has not yet decided how CCS systems will be accepted under the Kyoto mechanisms, these general procedures could be applicable to them as well as to other similar schemes on emission trading and projects. 9.4 Gaps in knowledge Methodologies for incorporating CCS into national inventories and accounting schemes are under development. CCS (see Sections 9.2 and 9.3) can be incorporated in different ways and data requirements may differ depending on the choices made. The following gaps in knowledge and need for decisions by the political process have been identified: • Methodologies to estimate physical leakage from storage, and emission factors (fugitive emissions) for estimating emissions from capture systems and from transportation and injection processes are not available. • Geological and ocean storage open new challenges regarding a) uncertainty on the permanence of the stored emissions, b) the need for protocols on transboundary transport and storage, c) accounting rules for CCS and, d) insight on issues such as emission measurement, long term monitoring, timely detection and liability/responsibility. • Methodologies for reporting and verification of reduced emission under the Kyoto Mechanisms have not been agreed upon. • Methodologies for estimating and dealing with potential emissions resulting from system failures, such as sudden geological faults and seismic activities or pipeline disruptions have not been developed.PDF Image | CARBON DIOXIDE CAPTURE AND STORAGE
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