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Annex I: Properties of CO2 and carbon-based fuels 391 unless present in high concentrations. When contained under pressure, escape of CO2 can present serious hazards, for example asphyxiation, noise level (during pressure relief), frostbite, hydrates/ice plugs and high pressures (Jarrell et al., 2002). The handling and processing of CO2 must be taken into account during the preparation of a health, safety and environment plan for any facility handling CO2. AI.2.3.1 Effects of exposure to CO2 At normal conditions, the atmospheric concentration of CO2 is 0.037%, a non-toxic amount. Most people with normal cardiovascular, pulmonary-respiratory and neurological functions can tolerate exposure of up to 0.5−1.5% CO2 for one to several hours without harm. Higher concentrations or exposures of longer duration are hazardous – either by reducing the concentration of oxygen in the air to below the 16% level required to sustain human life1, or by entering the body, especially the bloodstream, and/or altering the amount of air taken in during breathing; such physiological effects can occur faster than the effects resulting from the displacement of oxygen, depending on the concentration of CO2. This is reflected in, for example, the current US occupational exposure standard of 0.5% for the maximum allowable concentration of CO2 in air for eight hours continuous exposure; the maximum concentration to which operating personnel may be exposed for a short period of time is 3.0%. Figure AI.9 Effects of CO2 exposure on humans (Fleming et al., 1992). The impact of elevated CO2 concentrations on humans depends on the concentration and duration of exposure. At concentrations up to 1.5%, there are no noticeable physical consequences for healthy adults at rest from exposure for an hour or more (Figure AI.9); indeed, exposure to slightly elevated concentrations of CO2, such as in re-breathing masks on aeroplanes at high altitude, may produce beneficial effects (Benson et al., 2002). Increased activity or temperature may affect how the exposure is perceived. Longer exposure, even to less than 1% concentration, may significantly affect health. Noticeable effects occur above this level, particularly changes in respiration and blood pH level that can lead to increased heart rate, discomfort, nausea and unconsciousness. Health risks to the population could therefore occur if a release of CO2 were to produce: • relatively low ambient concentrations of CO2 for prolonged It is noted (Rice, 2004) that most studies of the effects of CO2 have involved healthy young male subjects, especially in controlled atmospheres such as submarines. Carbon dioxide tolerance in susceptible subgroups, such as children, the elderly, or people with respiratory deficiency, has not been studied to such an extent. Site-specific risk assessments using these and other health data are necessary to determine potential health risks for the general population or for more sensitive subjects. Acute exposure to CO2 concentrations at or above 3% may significantly affect the health of the general population. Hearing loss and visual disturbances occur above 3% CO2. Healthy young adults exposed to more than 3% CO2 during exercise experience adverse symptoms, including laboured AI.2.3.3 Sensitive populations 1 Signs of asphyxia will be noted when atmospheric oxygen concentration falls below 16%. Unconsciousness, leading to death, will occur when the atmospheric oxygen concentration is reduced to ≤ 8% although, if strenuous exertion is being undertaken, this can occur at higher oxygen concentrations (Rice, 2004). Rice (2004) has indicated that there may be certain specific groups in the population which are more sensitive to elevated CO2 levels than the general population. Such groups include those suffering from certain medical conditions including cerebral disease as well as patients in trauma medicated patients and those experiencing panic disorder, as well as individuals breathing, headache, impaired vision and mental confusion. CO2 acts as an asphyxiant in the range 7−10% and can be fatal at this concentration; at concentrations above 20%, death can occur in 20 to 30 minutes (Fleming et al., 1992). The effects of CO2 exposure are summarized in Table AI.3, which shows the consequences at different concentrations. periods; • or intermediate concentrations of CO2 in relatively anoxic environments; • or high concentrations of CO2. CO2 intoxication is identified by excluding other causes, as exposure to CO2 does not produce unique symptoms. Protective standards have been developed for workers who may be exposed to CO2 (Table AI.4 shows US standards but similar standards are understood to apply in other countries). These standards may or may not be relevant for protection of the general population against exposure to CO2. Nevertheless, the occupational standards exist and provide a measure of the recommended exposure levels for this class of individual. AI.2.3.2 Occupational standardsPDF Image | CARBON DIOXIDE CAPTURE AND STORAGE
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