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392 IPCC Special Report on Carbon dioxide Capture and Storage Table AI.3 Some reports of reactions to exposure to elevated concentrations of CO2. CO2 Exposure reactions Concentration Air Products (2004) Rice (2004) 1% Slight increase in breathing rate. Respiratory rate increased by about 37%. 2% Breathing rate increases to 50% above normal level. Prolonged exposure can cause headache, tiredness. Ventilation rate raised by about l00%. Respiratory rate raised by about 50%; increased brain blood flow. 3% Breathing increases to twice normal rate and becomes laboured. Weak narcotic effect. Impaired hearing, headache, increase in blood pressure and pulse rate. Exercise tolerance reduced in workers when breathing against inspiratory and expiratory resistance. 4-5% Breathing increases to approximately four times normal rate; symptoms of intoxication become evident and slight choking may be felt. Increase in ventilation rate by ~200%; Respiratory rate doubled, dizziness, headache, confusion, dyspnoea. 5-10% Characteristic sharp odour noticeable. Very laboured breathing, headache, visual impairment and ringing in the ears. Judgment may be impaired, followed within minutes by loss of consciousness. At 8-10%, severe headache, dizziness, confusion, dyspnoea, sweating, dim vision. At 10%, unbearable dyspnoea, followed by vomiting, disorientation, hypertension, and loss of consciousness. 50-100% Unconsciousness occurs more rapidly above 10% level. Prolonged exposure to high concentrations may eventually result in death from asphyxiation. with pulmonary disease resulting in acidosis, children and people engaged in complex tasks. artery disease or heart failure in jeopardy (Cooper et al., 1970). Infants and children breathe more air than adults relative to their body size and they therefore tend to be more susceptible to respiratory exposures (Snodgrass, 1992). At moderate to high CO2 concentrations, the relaxation of blood vessels and enhanced ventilation could contribute to rapid loss of body heat in humans of any age. Carbon dioxide can significantly diminish CO2 is a potent cerebrovascular dilator and significantly increases the cerebral blood flow. CO2 exposure can seriously compromise patients in a coma or with a head injury, with increased intra-cranial pressure or bleeding, or with expanding lesions. An elevated partial pressure of CO2 in arterial blood can further dilate cerebral vessels already dilated by anoxia. an individual’s performance in carrying out complex tasks. Anoxia and various drugs (Osol and Pratt, 1973) can depress the stimulation of the respiratory centre by CO2. In such patients, as well as patients with trauma to the head, the normal compensatory mechanisms will not be effective against exposure to CO2 and the symptoms experienced will not necessarily alert the individuals or their carers to the presence of high CO2 levels. AI.2.3.4 CO2 control and response procedures Patients susceptible to panic disorder may experience an increased frequency of panic attacks at 5% CO2 (Woods et al., 1988). Panic attack and significant anxiety can affect the ability of the individual to exercise appropriate judgment in dangerous situations. Suitable control procedures have been developed by industries which use CO2, for example, minimizing any venting of CO2 unless this cannot be avoided for safety or other operational reasons. Adequate ventilation must be provided when CO2 is discharged into the air to ensure rapid dispersion. CO2 exposure can increase pulmonary pressure as well as systemic blood pressure and should be avoided in individuals with systemic or pulmonary hypertension. The rise in cardiac work during CO2 inhalation could put patients with coronary Due its high density, released CO2 will flow to low-levels and collect there, especially under stagnant conditions. High concentrations can persist in open pits, tanks and buildings. For this reason, monitors should be installed in areas where CO2 might concentrate, supplemented by portable monitors. If CO2 escapes from a vessel, the consequent pressure drop can cause a hazardous cold condition with danger of frostbite from contact with cold surfaces, with solid CO2 (dry ice) or with escaping liquid CO2. Personnel should avoid entering a CO2 vapour Table AI.4 Occupational exposure standards. a OSHA - US Occupational Safety and Health Administration (1986). b NIOSH - US National Institute of Occupational Safety and Health (1997). c ACGIH - American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists. Time-weighted average (8 hour day/40 hour week) Short-term exposure limit (15 minute) Immediately dangerous to life and health OSHA permissible exposure limita 5000 ppm (0.5%) NIOSH recommended exposure limitb 5000 ppm (0.5%) 30,000 ppm (3%) 40,000 ppm (5%) ACGIH threshold limit valuec 5000 ppm (0.5%)PDF Image | CARBON DIOXIDE CAPTURE AND STORAGE
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