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Annex I: Properties of CO2 and carbon-based fuels Carpenter (1988) describes the various coal classification systems in use today. In general, these systems are based on hierarchy and rank. The rank of a coal is the stage the coal has reached during the coalification2 process – that is its degree of metamorphism or maturity. Table AI.7 shows the classification system adopted by the American Society for Testing Materials (ASTM), D388-92A (Carpenter, 1988; Perry and Green, 1997). This rank-based system is extensively used in North America and many other parts of the world. This system uses two parameters to classify coals by rank, fixed carbon (dry, mineral- matter-free) for the higher rank coals and gross calorific value (moist, mineral-matter-free) for the lower rank coals. The agglomerating character of the coals is used to differentiate between adjacent coal groups. During the past 600 million years, the remains of incompletely decayed plant have become buried under thick layers of rock and, under high pressure and temperature, have been converted to petroleum which may occur in gaseous, liquid or solid form. The fluid produced from petroleum reservoirs may be crude oil (a mixture of light and heavy hydrocarbons and bitumen) or natural gas liquids. Hydrocarbons can also be extracted from tar sands or oil shales; this takes place in several parts of the world. 395 as carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, sulphur, the oxygen content (by difference), as well as ash. Along with these analyses, the heating value (expressed as kJ kg−1) is also determined. these compounds can vary greatly depending on location. Natural gas is always treated prior to use, mainly by drying, and by removing H2S and, depending on the amount present, CO2. There are no universally accepted specification systems for marketed natural gas; however a typical composition of natural gas is given in Table AI.10 (Spath and Mann, 2000). AI.4.1.4 Biofuels AI.4.1.2 Oil and petroleum fuels Biofuels may be defined as fuels produced from organic matter or combustible oils produced by plants (IPCC, 2001). Dedicated energy crops, including short-rotation woody crops such as hardwood trees and herbaceous crops such as switch grass, are agricultural crops that are solely grown for use as biofuels. These crops have very fast growth rates and can therefore provide a regular supply of fuel. The category of biofuels also includes wood from trees and wood waste products (e.g., sawdust, wood chips, etc.), crop residues (e.g., rice husks, bagasse, corn husks, wheat chaff, etc.). This category of fuel is often taken to include some types of municipal, animal and industrial wastes (e.g., sewage sludge, manure, etc.). These would be combusted in stationary plants. Chemical properties of typical biofuels, including peat, are given in Table AI.11 (Sami et al., 2001; Hower, 2003). Fuels are extracted from crude oil through fractional distillation, with subsequent conversion and upgrading. Such fuels are used for vehicles (gasoline, jet fuel, diesel fuel and liquefied petroleum gases (LPG)), heating oils, lighting oils, solvents, lubricants and building materials such as asphalts, plus a variety of other products. The compositions of heating fuels may differ in their composition, density, etcetera but general categories are recognized worldwide: kerosene-type vaporizing fuel, distillate (or ‘gas oil’) and more viscous blends and residuals. Tables AI.8 and AI.9 provide typical specifications of some common fuels (Perry and Green, 1997; Kaantee et al., 2003). Biomass-derived fuels can also be manufactured for use as transport fuels, for example ethanol from fermentation of plant material or biodiesel produced by transesterification of vegetable oils. The energy efficiency of fermentation systems can be improved by combustion of the solid residues to produce electricity. AI.4.1.3 Natural gas Natural gas is combustible gas that occurs in porous rock of the Earth’s crust; it is often found with or near accumulations of crude oil. It may occur in separate reservoirs but, more commonly, it forms a gas cap entrapped between the petroleum and an impervious, capping rock layer in a petroleum reservoir. Under high-pressure conditions, it becomes partially mixed with or dissolved in the crude oil. Methane (CH4) is the main component of natural gas, usually making up more than 80% of the constituents by volume. The remaining constituents are ethane (C2H6), propane (C3H8), butane (C4H10), hydrogen sulphide (H2S) and inerts (N2, CO2 and He). The amounts of 2 Coalification refers to the progressive transformation of peat through lignite/ brown coal, to sub-bituminous, bituminous and anthracite coals. AI.4.2 Examples of emissions from carbonaceous fuels Depending on the fuel type and application, the utilization of carbonaceous fuels causes direct and indirect emissions of one or more of the following: SOx, NOx, particulate matter, trace metals and elements, volatile organic carbons and greenhouse gases (e.g., CO2, CH4, N2O). Direct emissions are usually confined to the point of combustion of the fuel. Indirect emissions include those that arise from the upstream recovery, processing and distribution of the fuel. Life cycle analysis (LCA) can be used to account for all emissions (direct as well as indirect) arising from the recovery, processing, distribution and end-use of a fuel. Table AI.12 (Cameron, 2002) and Table AI.13 (EPA, 2004) give an idea of some direct and indirect emissions anticipated, but these should only be viewed as examples due to the considerable variation there can be in many of these values.PDF Image | CARBON DIOXIDE CAPTURE AND STORAGE
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