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Energies 2021, 14, 387 14 of 32 Table 4. Techno-economic analysis for CO2 separation with membrane technology performed by MTR for post-combustion capture in SCPC coal-fired power plant [22]. Performance and Cost Measurement for New SCPC with Bituminous Coal Integrated with the Membrane Capture System Plant Performance Measurement SCPC/USC reference plant net power output [MW] Emission rate w/o capture [t CO2/MWh] Emission rate with capture [t CO2/MWh] Percentage of CO2 reduction per MWh [%] Total CO2 captured or stored [Mt/y] Plant efficiency w/o capture, HHV basis [%] Plant efficiency w/capture, HHV basis [%] Efficiency penalty [%] LCOE w/o capture [$/MWh] LCOE w/capture [$/MWh] Increase in LCOE capture only [$/MWh] Cost of CO2 captured [$/t CO2] Cost of CO2 avoided [$/t CO2] 4. Large-Scale Transport of CO2 Representative Value 550 0.788 0.111 89.9 4.8 39.3 28.6 10.7 76.9 120.4 43.5 44 64 CO2 can be transported in the solid, liquid, or gas phase. Liquid phase transportation is a critical method due to topographic variations that could cause pressure drop and temperature change, which leads to two-phase flow liquid-gas. Therefore, the most efficient way to transport CO2 is in the supercritical phase (pressure higher than 7.38 MPa and temperature of more than 31.2 ◦C). The transportation via pipeline is characterized by a steady-state supply of CO2 without temporary storage, while ship transport becomes feasible for long distances or overseas. CO2 has been transported by pipeline for many years to industry users (e.g., food production, winemaking, oil recovery) while, in recent years, millions of tonnes of CO2 have been transported to the USA and Canada for EOR. Therefore, it is a mature technology, though a significant effort would be required to scale up the infrastructure to manage the global captured target of 7 Gt/y [36], which is much larger than the approximately 50 Mt/y transported for EOR in the USA [37]. 4.1. CO2 Thermophysical Properties The transportation chain starts from the conditioning of a CO2 rich stream from a capture process and ends with the injection into the storage sink. Between these two points, the CO2 transportation can take place via pipeline, ship or tanker trucks. Pipelines today operate as a mature market technology. The CO2 gathered from different capture technologies from sizeable stationary emission sources (e.g., industries and power plants) is conditioned, to remove impurities, and typically compressed up to 80 bar to avoid two- phase (i.e., liquid-gas phases) flow regimes and density increase. When it is transported via ship or road or rail tankers, the liquid CO2 carried is insulated at a low temperature and pressure in tanks. Usually, the thermodynamic designs for semi-refrigerant tank types are −54 ◦C and 6 bar or −50 ◦C and 7 bar [38]. CO2 can be transported in all three phases. For example, during pipeline transporta- tion, pressure drops and temperature changes can cause a phase change. Therefore, it is crucial to know the CO2 phase diagram reported in Figure 9a. The phase diagram contains two important points: (i) triple point (−56.6 ◦C, 5.2 bar), the three phases of the substance coexist in thermodynamic equilibrium; (ii) critical point (31.1 ◦C, 73.8 bar), above which the substance exists as a supercritical fluid. In this last phase, CO2 has the density of a liquid and viscosity of a gas [39]. After purification, CO2 is dried to remove water particles and avoid corrosion to carbon and low-alloy steel lines. Indeed, moisture condensation can cause carbonic acidPDF Image | Energies 14
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