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Energies 2021, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 15 of 33 Energies 2021, 14, 387 crucial to know the CO2 phase diagram reported in Figure 9a. The phase diagram contains two important points: (i) triple point (−56.6 °C, 5.2 bar), the three phases of the substance coexist in thermodynamic equilibrium; (ii) critical point (31.1 °C, 73.8 bar), above which the substance exists as a supercritical fluid. In this last phase, CO2 has the density of a liquid and viscosity of a gas [39]. After purification, CO2 is dried to remove water particles and avoid corrosion to car- 15 of 32 formation. After this process, the CO2 is pressurized to often achieve a dense phase fluid, bon and low-alloy steel lines. Indeed, moisture condensation can cause carbonic acid for- increasing pipeline transportation efficiency. mation. After this process, the CO2 is pressurized to often achieve a dense phase fluid, The behavior of the captured CO2 depends on its composition. The composition increasing pipeline transportation efficiency. relies upon the source type (e.g., power plant, industrial process), capture technology (e.g., The behavior of the captured CO2 depends on its composition. The composition relies puopsotn-cthoemsobuurcsettiyopne,(eo.xg.y,p-coowmerbpulasnti,oind,upstreia-lcpormocebsus)s,tciaopntu)r,eatnecdhnfouloeglyty(ep.ge.,.pIotsmt-aycontainother combustion, oxy-combustion, pre-combustion), and fuel type. It may contain other chem- chemical species like water vapour, CH4, N2, H2S, O2, and several other hydrocarbons. The ical species like water vapour, CH4, N2, H2S, O2, and several other hydrocarbons. The pres- presence of impurities has a significant impact on the physical properties (phase diagram) ence of impurities has a significant impact on the physical properties (phase diagram) and and hydraulic parameters (e.g., density, viscosity), as illustrated in Figure 9b. Therefore, a hydraulic parameters (e.g., density, viscosity), as illustrated in Figure 9b. Therefore, a CO2- CriOchm-riixcthurmediixatgurarmedisinaegcreassmaryistondeecseigsnsathryettroandspeosritgatniotnhceortreacntlysp.ortationcorrectly. 2 Figure 9. (a) CO2 phase diagram; (b) difference in density of pure CO2 and CO2 rich mixture [95% Figure 9. (a) CO2 phase diagram; (b) difference in density of pure CO2 and CO2 rich mixture [95% CO2/3% N2/2% O2] at 100 bar. International Energy Agency (IEA) [Woodhill] (2002) Pipeline trans- CO /3% N /2% O ] at 100 bar. International Energy Agency (IEA) [Woodhill] (2002) Pipeline mis2sion of CO2 and ener2gy transmission study-report. All rights reserved [39]. transmission of CO2 and energy transmission study-report. All rights reserved [39]. This alteration has both technical and economic implications. The pumped system is recommended to keep the CO2 under the supercritical phase all along the pipeline. Further attention has to be paid to the depth variation, which induces temperature and pressure change. It has been highlighted that the presence of free water in the CO2 stream should be avoided, and its content should be limited between 50–600 ppm [40]. The level of moisture depends on the quantity of SOx, NOx, and H2S contained in the CO2 stream, which can be formed in the presence of aqueous phase sulphuric and nitric acids and cause a pH drop of the solution. Therefore, the gas purification steps are essential to adjust the composition and obtain high CO2 concentration. 4.2. Economic Evaluation of CO2 Pipeline Transportation Several works explain different cost models for pipeline transportation, but all of them give inconsistent results [41] due to different topographic conditions (e.g., onshore vs.PDF Image | Energies 14
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