PDF Publication Title:
Text from PDF Page: 018
Energies 2021, 14, 387 18 of 32 5. CO2 Sequestration and NGH Purification Storage of carbon dioxide from a power station or industrial facilities can be feasibly done as climate change mitigation options in subsurface formation within or below the ocean or under the ground. Considering the large-scale capture and storage, it is crucial to highlights the toxicity of CO2. The concentration in the atmosphere is around 0.04% but, if it increases up to 10%, the CO2 acts as an asphyxiant while, if it rises until 20%, the inhalation leads to rapid death. Therefore, once stored, the site will need to be monitored for many years to verify that CO2 can never be released to the atmosphere. The main types of underground storage site are: • Oil and gas wells. They are immediately accessible and used for EOR. During the extraction process, it is possible to achieve an oil with high viscosity (i.e., heavy oil) that it is impossible to extract with conventional methods. The injection of CO2 is one method to enhance oil recovery. The gas remains underground after pumped while the oil can be extract. The sequestered CO2 have to be monitored every days [46]. It can also be used depleted oil and gas fields, providing a storage capacity that will often have pipeline access but with limited capacity. • Coal beds too deep to be mined. These coal beds (relatively rare) usually contain methane, and therefore carbon dioxide can replace it. The recovery methane will offset the cost of carbon dioxide sequestration. • Brine aquifer. It is created when a cap of impermeable rock is formed deep un- derground and prevents water and gas seeping upwards. It can potentially be the most critical type of underground site in which CO2 can replace the brine to remain securely stored. • Sequestrating CO2 as hydrate. Potentially, the CO2 can be trapped as clathrate hy- drates into deep oceanic basins, depleted or existing natural gas hydrate reservoir, sub permafrost region with unfrozen water, and depleted oil and gas partially saturated with water. 5.1. CO2 Storage as Clathrate Hydrates Subsurface CO2 permanent sequestration through clathrate hydrates formation is a novel method to mitigate global warming. Gas hydrate are clathrate compounds in which some guest gas molecules (e.g., CO2, CH4, C2H6) are encapsulated in water molecules. The gas hydrate form under low temperature and high-pressure conditions via hydrogen bonding between water molecules. Reserves of methane in hydrate structure are abundant in geological accumulations in offshore and permafrost environments, and they exceed the all-carbon fossil fuel [47]. Three methods are used to shift the equilibrium and produce methane from oceanic sediments: (i) thermal stimulation through direct heating or injection of heated fluid; (ii) depressurization is the preferred technique for driving gas hydrate dissociation; (iii) injection of chemical inhibitors; (iv) gas swapping [48]. The thermal stimulation method requires a continuous energy source to raise the hydrate temperature above the stability point. The depressurization method decreases the hydrate pressure under the stability point, causing hydrate dissociation. Inhibitor injection involves the injection of a compound at isobaric conditions that shift the equilibrium point to the lower temperature. The injection of CO2 molecule into NGH deposits involves the replacement of CH4 into the water cages that leads to produce methane and store carbon dioxide. CO2 forms a stable hydrate structure at lower pressure conditions than CH4 hydrates at the same temperature, as it is showed in Figure 11. Therefore, CO2 hydrates are more stable than CH4 hydrates under certain conditions (i.e., CO2 and CH4 hydrates equilibrium curves intersect at around 10.5 ◦C and 75 bar), and it can displace the methane in the hydrate structure. In this way, it enables low carbon energy recovery (e.g., CH4) while offsetting capture and transportation cost. Besides, CO2 can re-occupy the pore space from methane recovery, maintaining the mechanical stability of the rock and preventing possible hazards of slope failures. Uchida et al. [49] have demonstrated via experiment andPDF Image | Energies 14
PDF Search Title:
Energies 14Original File Name Searched:
energies-14-00387.pdfDIY PDF Search: Google It | Yahoo | Bing
NFT (Non Fungible Token): Buy our tech, design, development or system NFT and become part of our tech NFT network... More Info
IT XR Project Redstone NFT Available for Sale: NFT for high tech turbine design with one part 3D printed counter-rotating energy turbine. Be part of the future with this NFT. Can be bought and sold but only one design NFT exists. Royalties go to the developer (Infinity) to keep enhancing design and applications... More Info
Infinity Turbine IT XR Project Redstone Design: NFT for sale... NFT for high tech turbine design with one part 3D printed counter-rotating energy turbine. Includes all rights to this turbine design, including license for Fluid Handling Block I and II for the turbine assembly and housing. The NFT includes the blueprints (cad/cam), revenue streams, and all future development of the IT XR Project Redstone... More Info
Infinity Turbine ROT Radial Outflow Turbine 24 Design and Worldwide Rights: NFT for sale... NFT for the ROT 24 energy turbine. Be part of the future with this NFT. This design can be bought and sold but only one design NFT exists. You may manufacture the unit, or get the revenues from its sale from Infinity Turbine. Royalties go to the developer (Infinity) to keep enhancing design and applications... More Info
Infinity Supercritical CO2 10 Liter Extractor Design and Worldwide Rights: The Infinity Supercritical 10L CO2 extractor is for botanical oil extraction, which is rich in terpenes and can produce shelf ready full spectrum oil. With over 5 years of development, this industry leader mature extractor machine has been sold since 2015 and is part of many profitable businesses. The process can also be used for electrowinning, e-waste recycling, and lithium battery recycling, gold mining electronic wastes, precious metals. CO2 can also be used in a reverse fuel cell with nafion to make a gas-to-liquids fuel, such as methanol, ethanol and butanol or ethylene. Supercritical CO2 has also been used for treating nafion to make it more effective catalyst. This NFT is for the purchase of worldwide rights which includes the design. More Info
NFT (Non Fungible Token): Buy our tech, design, development or system NFT and become part of our tech NFT network... More Info
Infinity Turbine Products: Special for this month, any plans are $10,000 for complete Cad/Cam blueprints. License is for one build. Try before you buy a production license. May pay by Bitcoin or other Crypto. Products Page... More Info
| CONTACT TEL: 608-238-6001 Email: greg@infinityturbine.com | RSS | AMP |