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Elon Musk and SpaceX Steven Muegge and Ewan Reid lived only on earth, and practices that had driven massive cost-reduction in other industries were not used in space. SpaceX was the means for liberation: to inspire, to do things that matter, to maintain control, to show change is possible, and to make humans into a multi-planetary species. Musk authored new arrangements in place of the industry status quo, in particular founding SpaceX with personal funds as a Silicon Valley space company, with unconventional facilities, a modular platform of re-usable components, and commercial contracts to develop technology and provide services. Musk made declarations to shape interpretations of stakeholders about the value and meaning of SpaceX activities and intent for change—about building a launch vehicle and the SpaceX system, persevering despite set-backs, doing things differently, and remaining privately-held. Musk may be an atypical entrepreneur in both attributes and circumstances. In a new epilogue written for the paperback edition, Vance (2017, p. 374) writes that, “Musk does not operate like your typical CEO. He's charging after a personal calling—one that's intertwined with his soul and injected into the deepest parts of his mind.” Furthermore, Musk began SpaceX with a personal fortune, a munificent resource environment that is unavailable to most entrepreneurs. We purposely selected Musk and SpaceX as an extreme case in pursuit of fresh insights, following the research design advice of March et al. (1991), Christensen & Raynor (2003), Van de Ven (2007), Yin (2014), and Eisenhardt et al. (2016). Nonetheless, we found that the emancipation perspective was valid here also in an extreme case for identifying, describing, and explaining Musk’s entrepreneuring activities. This suggests that the emancipation perspective may be applicable to entrepreneurship with broad scope conditions (Suddaby, 2010) that include the most extreme outlier cases. Jennings et al. (2016, p. 99) had previously observed that most empirical work utilizing the emancipation perspective has been conducted in developing economies or with marginalized populations. Our results therefore lead us to call also for empirical investigation of entrepreneuring as emancipation in the world’s most-developed economies, most-advanced technologies, and most- advantaged populations. Likewise, our results support the Rindova et al. (2009) assertion that “implied opposition between emancipatory projects to create change and a 'hard-nosed business strategy' is a false one” (p. 483). SpaceX is both a profitable venture inspired by dreams and a social mission with profit potential. Musk simultaneously pursues a bold societal goal while building a successful company. The emancipation perspective thus accommodates social outcomes and wealth creation within the same framework, thereby calling into question the common practice of treating social entrepreneurship as somehow different from “regular” entrepreneurship. Some of Musk’s entrepreneuring activities appear anomalous from a strict wealth-creation perspective. However, these same activities appear coherent and logically consistent when interpreted as emancipatory change creation to escape from perceived constraints. Other theoretical perspectives on entrepreneurship may also offer coherent explanations for some of Musk’s activities – for example, entrepreneurial hubris (Hayward et al. 2006) could perhaps account for the relentless perseverance in 2008 for a fourth launch attempt despite three failures and dwindling resources, entrepreneurial effectuation (Saravathy, 2001) could account for organizing SpaceX as a Silicon Valley company in an industry that organized in unfamiliar ways, and entrepreneurial bricolage (Baker & Nelson, 2005) could account for both the attempt to procure Russian missiles and the use of unconventional launch facilities. A rigorous consideration of hubris, effectuation, bricolage, and other perspectives is beyond the scope of the current article. However, each of these alternative perspectives appears likely to inform only a subset of the seventeen examples of entrepreneuring as emancipation identified here, and each perspective seems incompatible with or unhelpful for explaining other examples. There are at least two broader implications for scholarship. First, researchers of entrepreneurship and innovation phenomena should continue to adopt multiple theoretical perspectives, a tactic advocated by Christensen & Raynor (2003), Van de Ven (2007), Yin (2014), and others for methodologically rigorous and high-impact management research. Second, the emancipation perspective can provide an organizing framework that accommodates wealth-creation, hubris, bricolage, effectuation, and other perspectives on entrepreneurship and innovation as partial and complementary explanations of the motivations and processes for some entrepreneuring activities. We agree with Rindova et al. (2009, p. 478) that “research that considers both more closely and more broadly the entrepreneurial dreams and efforts to create change in the world may bring us to a fuller, more comprehensive understanding of the processes of discovery, change, value creation, and ultimately wealth creation” – especially for technology entrepreneurs.PDF Image | TIM Review 2019
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