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7.34 Ultrafiltration. - Ultrafilters with molecular weight cutoffs between 200 and 20,000 Daltons can be used to remove silica and colloids. These filters are operated at low pressure and high recirculation rates so that fouling is not as much of a problem as it would be with RO membranes. Some are durable enough to be cleaned under harsh conditions that RO membranes cannot tolerate. The absence of sludge and the compactness of the process are some of the benefits of using ultrafiitration as opposed to the traditional precipitation processes. Ultrafiltration requires the same type of equipment as RO. In fact, depending on the feed water composition and the type of membrane used, ultratilters could be incorporated into the RO system ahead of the RO membrane. Booster pumps may be needed to get the pressure up to RO level. 7.3 Iron and Manganese Iron is found in ground water and deep surface water low in dissolved oxygen. It may be in either the soluble ferrous state (Fe+‘); the ferric state (Fe+3); in inorganic complexes with silicates, phosphates, polyphosphates, sulfates, cyanides, and others; or organic complexes with humic, fulvic and/or tannic acids (Degremont, 1991). Underground water usually has iron as ferrous bicarbonate. When dissolved ferrous bicarbonate is exposed to air, the iron may become oxidized to the ferric state in which it forms an insoluble hydroxide that is diffmult to remove from membrane surfaces. Manganese is usually found with iron and behaves similarly. 7.3.1 Oxidation/filtration. - Iron can be precipitated by increasing the oxidation potential and/or the pH. When iron concentration is between 5 to 10 mg/L and no other problems exist with manganese, color, turbidity, or organic acids, the iron can be precipitated by oxidation with air. The rata of reaction is directly proportional to the pH and dissolved oxygen content. After oxidation, the treated water requires filtration with media capable of removing 0.5- to l-mm particles. If iron concentration is higher or other contaminants are present in the water, a coagulant such as aluminum sulfate or ferric chloride is added to enhance removal of organics. A settling tank between the oxidation and filtration steps is used to remove larger precipitates. 7.3.2 Iron removal with lime softening. - When softening is required, iron can be removed in the same step. At a pH of about 8, practically all iron is precipitated as FeCO,. 7.3.3 Biological removal. - Under the right conditions certain bacteria will convert Fe3+ to Fe(OH)3 within or on the sheaths surrounding their bodies. The optimum conditions are:PDF Image | DESALTING AND WATER TREATMENT MEMBRANE
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