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Lime softening is an old, reliable process, but it produces massive quantities of sludge that require settling ponds and filter presses for dewatering. To remove 160 mg/L of Ca(HCO,), and 160 mg/L of MgfHCOs), from one cubic meter of water by the above equations, 15.5 g of lime are required that produce 310 g of carbonate solids. The solids are mixed with water though, after settling and pumping off the supernatant, the sludge is still about 75 percent water by weight, resulting in a total weight of 1,240 g. Multiply these amounts by a modest 5,000 m3/d/plant, and the sludge is increased to 6,200 kg/d. 7.4.3 ion exchange. - Another approach to the carbonate cycle is to use cationic resins to replace the calcium ions (or other divalent cations) with sodium ions, which do not form insoluble salts with carbonate ion. Resin beads have multiple sites of ionic attachment. These sites are preferentially taken up by multivalent cations. During the service phase of operation, two sodium ions are displaced by a calcium cation. The number of sites per volume of resin (capacity) is supplied by the manufacturer. The depth of the resin bed and the necessary flow rates can be calculated from the resin capacity, the divalent ion concentration in the feed water, and the volume of water to be treated. When most of the attachment sites have been taken up, calcium begins to appear in the product water and the resin must be regenerated. During regeneration, a strong sodium chloride solution is passed through the resin bed until the amount of calcium in the product water falls off. Rohm and Haas (1978) recommend 3 to 10 L of 10 percent NaCl solution per liter of resin at a flow rate of 130 mUmin per liter of resin for complete regeneration of their Amberlit& IR-120 Plus (Rohm and Haas, 1978). Ion exchange is well suited for incorporation into an RO system. Depending on the salinity and pH, the RO brine may be used as regenerant solution. Cation exchange resins can be adequately regenerated at lower concentrations than 10 percent with lower flow rates and longer regeneration cycles (Haugseth and Bietelshees, 19741. However, precipitation 01 CaC03 may cause problems because the cations removed from the resin are reintroduced tc the concentrated bicarbonate ions in the brine. 7.4.4 Nanofiltration. - Nanofiltration membranes preferentially reject divalent ions ovei monovalent ions at a rate of about 95 percent to 75 percent. Chloride ions tend to pas5 through the membrane while divalent carbonate ion is retained. Whether bicarbonate ionr are rejected at the same rate as chloride or not is unclear. The rate of rejection reall! depends on the composition of the water. The calcium and magnesium must be balanced b! an equivalent negative charge. If divalent anions are scarce then ion size will be the determining factor. Larger monovalent ions will tend to be retained and bicarbonate i: almost twice as large as chloride (61:35). The reject from nanofiltration contains 95 percent of the divalent (land higher) cations, 50 u 75 percent of the monovalent cations, and an equivalent percentage of the higher chargedPDF Image | DESALTING AND WATER TREATMENT MEMBRANE
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