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the sludge volume remains low, requiring disposal only once every month or two (Stavenger, 1971). 7.6 Deoxidation The presence of free oxidants is destructive to thin film composite membranes; eventually it breaks down even cellulosic membranes that’can tolerate up to 5 mgL of free chlorine. Unfortunately, oxidation is usually required to keep microbial life in check. If halogens are used, dechlorination is required just before feed water enters the membrane modules. Dechlorination can be achieved by adding some form of SO,, or filtering with granular activated carbon (GAC). Reduction with SO, is a fast reaction, which can work in the feed pipes on the way to the RO system. SO, can be sulfur dioxide gas, crystallized sodium sulphite, or sodium bisulphite. The reactions are as follows: With free chlorine: With monochloramine: SO, + Hz0 + HzSO, HzSO, + HClO + HCl + H,SO, H,SO, + NH,CI + Hz0 + NH&l + H,SO, GAC takes longer to deoxidize water than SO,. A reaction chamber is required to keep the water in contact with the carbon for a few minutes. Unfortunately, an activated carbon bed is perfect for culturing bacteria. Organic molecules adsorbed by the carbon provide nourishment. With the water free of oxidants, nothing keeps microbes from flourishing downstream in the RO module. The presence of fine carbon dust mixed with the grains is another reason not to use GAC for deoxidation. If the GAG is just ahead of the RO system, some carbon fines will deposit in the membrane module where they erode the membranes and clog membrane spacers. If GAC must be used for dechlorination, a sub-micrometer filter should be placed after the reactor, and the quality of the GAC effluent should be monitored closely for bacterial contamination. 7.7 Organic Compounds Organic compounds are a diverse group of water contaminants. They come from a variety of sources: humic and firlvic acids from the breakdown of vegetative matter and oils, phenols, pesticides, surfactants, tannins, and chlorinated methanes from precipitation runoff from cities and farms. Table 7.2 compares processes for removing organic compounds based on polarity, size, and functional groups. Some organics are removed at each stage ofPDF Image | DESALTING AND WATER TREATMENT MEMBRANE
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