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1. Introduction Seawater desalination is the main non-conventional source of fresh water in many countries all around the world. In some specific areas, facing severe water scarcity conditions, it is indeed the first source of fresh water for the local population. Recent figures about desalination industry indicate a cumulative contracted capacity of desalination plants in 2016 of almost 100 Mm3/day, with an average contracted capacity per year between 3 and 5 Mm3/day in the last 5 years [1], and a continuous increasing trend is expected in the next decades. Interestingly, seawater desalination led the desalination market in the first decade of the third millennium, with a dramatic capacity increase for SW-desalination plants in those years. Conversely, during the second decade the desalination industry experienced a growth of the applications to the desalination of brackish water and other types of water streams (e.g. tertiary waste waters, surface saline waters, etc.), where the typical capacities are small or medium (below 50.000 m3/day) [1]. Among several different technologies, membrane processes nowadays have the leading role. In particular, looking at the new contracted plants (2010-2016), Reverse Osmosis now holds by far the majority of the global market share, ranging from 60% to 90% depending on the geographical areas. Thermal evaporative processes (mainly Multiple Effects Distillation and Multiple Stage Flash technologies) are still keeping an important role in Gulf countries, historically characterized by the operation of huge thermal desalination plants, thanks to their robustness, small sensitivity to low quality seawater feed and salt concentration and to the large availability of low-temperature waste heat for powering the thermal evaporative plants. Within this context, electromembrane processes, e.g. electrodialysis (ED), electrodialysis reversal (EDR) and electrodeionization (EDI), have a small, yet stable share in low-salinity desalination applications. New ED/EDR and EDI contracted plants in 2015-2016 covered between 1 and 2% of the total desalination installed capacity, with the majority of plants processing brackish water and with a size ranging between few tens of m3/day up to a maximum of 10,000m3/day, reached by an EDR plant installed in South Africa [1]. Such limitation in installed capacity and type of treated feed is mainly due to the relatively higher cost of ion exchange membranes (IEMs) compared to RO membranes, and to the significant reduction of membrane selectivity when seawater is used as the feed solution. A very recent development in the field of electromembrane processes has been the launching of reverse electrodialysis (RED) for energy generation from salinity gradients. In this new application, the salinity difference between two streams (e.g. seawater and river water, or concentrated brines and 5PDF Image | Electrodialysis for water desalination
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