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brackish water) is converted into electricity by means of a controlled mixing of the two solutions. RED significantly promoted the development of new membranes and new plant configurations suitable for operations at high salinity, with optimized process efficiencies [2–8]. Electromembrane processes are thus experiencing a very promising revival era, pushed by R&D and industrial developments carried out by research institutions and major industrial stakeholders in the US, Europe and Japan [9]. In addition to that, a number of novel applications have been proposed in other industrial sectors, where the features of ED (or EDI) are more suitable than RO. Examples of these applications are the use of ED for brine concentration in sea-salt production facilities in Japan [10, 11]; in food industry (e.g. for juice de-acidification) [12–14]; in electronics (e.g. for ultrapure water production) and wastewater treatment, especially for heavy metals removal [15–17]. Moreover, the recent trends in the field of renewable energy desalination have also highlighted the promising features of photovoltaic (PV)-ED coupling, made possible by the extreme flexibility of the ED process, which can follow the oscillating behaviour of PV power production [18]. The same features make ED extremely suitable also for coupling with other off-grid sources, such as wind energy [19]. Finally, several special applications of electromembrane processes are gaining room in the scientific- technological community, which is more and more engaged in developing new IEMs and devices, enlarging the potential for the application of this flexible and multi-faceted class of technologies. Among these, it is worth to mention the growing field of bipolar membranes for acid and alkali production and electrochemistry applications [20–26], the development of selective-electrodialysis for selective salt separation from saline streams [26–29], and the application of the electrodialysis metathesis (EDM) in Zero Liquid Discharge (ZLD) desalination [30–33]. An overview of ED technologies for water desalination and related processes is presented here, with a specific focus on the most challenging topics for the growth of the technology, such as IEM development, modelling tools for process optimization, and innovative applications. In particular, an extensive review of literature studies on the hydrodynamics, mass transport and fundamental phenomena governing the operation of electromembrane processes is given, with the aim of providing the reader with a comprehensive collection of all the main findings published in this field so far. The most important physicochemical phenomena are critically analysed for an in-depth knowledge of what governs ED and related processes. Finally, the most significant mathematical modelling approaches to the design and simulation of electromembrane processes are presented. 6PDF Image | Electrodialysis for water desalination
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