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barriers to ions, ensures that anions move freely through the nearest AEM and are blocked by the nearest CEM. Conversely, cations move through CEMs and are blocked by AEMs, which leads to the depletion of salt content in the dilute compartments and the enrichment of the concentrate one (see Figure 2). The repeating unit of ED, namely the cell pair, consists of an AEM, a CEM, a dilute channel and a concentrate channel. An ED stack contains from a few cell pairs (in laboratory-scale units) up to several hundreds of cell pairs (values around 500 cell pairs or more are common in industrial units) and the two electrodic compartments, which allow the current of ions to be converted into a current of electrons flowing through the external electrical circuit. The active area of a single membrane goes from ~0.01 to ~0.06 m2 for laboratory scale units [39–43], reaching values around 1 m2 for large industrial scale units [44, 45]. In conventional electrodialyzers with the classical plate-and-frame equipment (see Figure 3), the feed channels are created by interposing between the membranes net spacers, maintaining a fixed inter- membrane distance and providing some mixing promotion in the channels. Spacers are provided with gaskets along the perimeter of the channels, which seal the channels and guide the solutions through them. Holes in spacers and membranes create special ducts for the two hydraulic circuits acting as manifolds for distributing/collecting the solutions to/from the channels. The ED device is closed with two end plates and compressed by bolts and nuts. ED stacks can be also built without spacers, by using profiled membranes (spacers and profiled membranes will be discussed in detail in Section 4.4). The inter-membrane distance in ED stacks typically ranges from ~0.3 to ~2 mm [10, 39, 41, 44–50]. The electrodic compartments are typically obtained from the end plates and contain the two electrodes and the electrodic solution adopted for the conversion of ionic into electric current. NaCl has been used in the past as the electrodic solution, although this causes the production of active Cl2 [42] in the anodic compartment. For this reason, electrode rinse solutions containing SO42- salts are now usually preferred in order to avoid damages to the anode [51]. Recently, the use of capacitive electrodes instead of conventional ones has been studied [52, 53]. These electrodes are composed by an active carbon layer and a current collector. Ions are adsorbed/desorbed in the active layer; this releases/captures free electrons, which pass through the collector thus reaching the external electrical circuit. In this way, it is possible to convert the ionic current into an electronic one without the need for a redox reaction, thus providing advantages such as the absence of unstable or toxic products (i.e. Cl2) and the reduction of the electrodic potential drop [54]. On the other hand, capacitive electrodes suffer from saturation of the carbon layer, so that the electrical polarity needs to be periodically switched in order to operate the unit in a continuous way. 9PDF Image | Electrodialysis for water desalination
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