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microheterogeneous model in [73] is particularly useful for the estimation of structural parameters as well as for the description of the peculiar behaviour (i.e. dependence on electrolyte concentration) of fundamental properties such as permselectivity and electrical conductivity. Nevertheless, Kamcev et al. [76] recently discarded the actual existence of such a microheterogeneous structure discussing data of membrane resistance measurements. Therefore, this is still an open issue which will require further research activities. Figure 5. Representation of the structure of a homogeneous CEM, with the three different phases: polymeric hydrophobic, electroneutral solution and gel phase [74]. For homogeneous membranes, three main manufacturing methods can be identified [57, 66, 77]: 1. Polymerisation of monomers: at least one of these monomers must contain ionisable groups; 2. Introduction of charged moieties into a polymeric film: this can be done by adding either a charged monomer or a non-functional monomer to be functionalized afterwards; 3. Introduction of charged moieties into a polymer, followed by polymer melting (or solvation in a solvent) and casting into a film. Styrene-divinylbenzene-based membranes represent one of the most remarkable examples of homogeneous structures produced starting from monomers. These membranes have been widely used in ED and are obtained from sulfonated or aminated styrene-divinylbenzene copolymers [70, 71]. These IEMs have been also used in ED plants concentrating seawater in order to produce table salt, where it is essential to increase the monovalent ion selectivity [70]. Concerning the second class of manufacturing methods, polyethylene, polypropylene and fluorocarbon polymers are used for IEMs production from a preformed polymeric film [77]. In this case, films are commonly functionalized by grafting acrylic monomers to obtain weak acidic CEMs [78–82]. Alternatively, vinyl monomers such as styrene are grafted to the polymer film and 14PDF Image | Electrodialysis for water desalination
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