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subsequently sulfonated or aminated in order to produce strong acidic CEMs [83–86] or AEMs [87, 88]. The third manufacturing method is commonly adopted for soluble polymers such as polyether ketone and sulfonated polymers [77, 89]. These latter are particularly important as they represent a promising option for producing cheap membranes to be used for ED and other processes when working under severe conditions such as high temperature [66]. Production processes and properties of IEMs based on polysulfone block copolymers, polyether sulfone and polyarylene ether sulfone have been widely described in the literature [90–95]. Though still at a laboratory scale, electrospinning (coupled with hot-pressing) has recently been proposed for the production of nanoporous IEMs [59]. By this method it is possible to produce nanofibrous structures combining high porosity and large surface area with higher tensile modulus compared to the bulk material. In particular, very good performances of these new IEMs have been found for diffusion dialysis applications [59]. Heterogeneous membranes are characterized by ion-exchange particles (of macroscopic size, compared to the nano-scale of phase discontinuities of homogeneous membranes) incorporated in a continuous phase made of a binding polymer [57]. These membranes are usually thicker, with higher mechanical strength but poorer electrochemical properties. The use of cheap binding polymers allows for a significant reduction in the IEMs specific price, and the best trade-off is to be found between these aspects [66]. Heterogeneous membranes are usually manufactured by incorporating ion- exchange resins into polymer sheets (the binder polymer) with three main alternative procedures [66, 96]: 1. calendering the particles into the polymeric sheet; 2. dry moulding of the inert polymer film and the resin particles followed by milling; 3. dispersion of resin particles in a solution containing a film-forming binder followed by casting and solvent evaporation. In addition, new preparation methods have been recently engineered with the aim of improving IEMs structure. In this context, polymer blending and pore filling methods represent recently proposed alternatives [59]. An important feature strongly affecting the mechanical behaviour of heterogeneous membranes is the particle size distribution. In particular, it was observed that the flexibility increases when decreasing the particle size, while the brittleness increases with the particle loading [97]. 15PDF Image | Electrodialysis for water desalination
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