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211, 212, 241–246] is related to the formation of an extended region (much thicker than typical EDLs) adjacent to the membrane surface, where electroneutrality is no more maintained, and to an inhomogeneous electric field affected by membrane features (geometrical and conductive heterogeneities, roughness, hydrophobicity, surface charge [173, 217–219]). The interactions generated within this charged region lead to volume forces triggering convective motions in the form of dynamic vortices in the near-wall layer, thus allowing overlimiting currents. Therefore, when the risk of scaling is low due to the lack of poorly soluble salts, operating at high current densities, close to the limiting one, may be an option in order to improve the process efficiency [235]. Furthermore, overlimiting regimes have been tested at laboratory scale, showing enhanced mass transfer [50], thus paving the way to alternative operational regime possibilities for efficient ED systems. This is favoured by the possibility of improving the performance of IEMs simply by surface modifications [173], in order to reduce water splitting and promote mass transfer, which has attracted an increasing interest to the application of overlimiting regimes in recent years. 4.3 Influence of polarization phenomena on the voltage drop The limiting current density is only one of the aspects related to concentration polarization phenomena. However, several other effects caused by concentration polarisation have to be characterised, as they can significantly affect the total stack voltage drop. The total potential drop between two bathing solutions (left, L, and right, R) facing an interposed IEM can be analysed following the segmentation modelling approach by TMS (see Section 3.1) [64, 202, 247] in a multi- layer system taking into account the presence of the DBLs, as in Figure 9. 31PDF Image | Electrodialysis for water desalination
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