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chronopotentiometry [3, 4, 139, 203, 259, 260] and EIS [140, 204, 205, 261–263]. Finally, Abu-Rjal et al. [264] have investigated the influence of the DBL on the membrane permselectivity, finding that concentration polarization may significantly affect counter-ions transport through the membrane, due to variation of the interface concentration and concentration profile across the membrane as the electric current changes. 4.4 Channels, mixing promotion and pressure drop Most electromembrane processes are based on the use of plate-and-frame geometries, in which channels are constituted by two membranes (being the channel walls) and an internal spacer keeping the interspace between them and also acting as a mixing promoter. The selection of proper spacer geometry and material can thus play a fundamental role in process design and optimisation. For this reason, hydrodynamics and mass transport phenomena in channels of membrane modules have been extensively characterized, both by experiments and by simulations [196, 198, 229, 230, 265–267]. Much research effort has been addressed to these phenomena also in the very recent years [6, 268– 276], thus demonstrating how this is still an open field leaving room for new developments. In the specific case of ED, several works are available in the literature which will be critically reviewed in the following sections, highlighting how researchers have approached the problem with particular focus on recent developments. Also findings on spacer-filled channels related to other membrane processes (e.g. reverse osmosis, membrane distillation, reverse electrodialysis [Section 6.6]) can provide useful information for ED applications. Two main geometric patterns have been devised for ED channels [10]: the sheet flow and the tortuous path. In the former configuration (Figure 3), the feed channels have a rectangular (or similar) shape and the solution flows roughly straight [10, 39–41]. In the latter configuration (Figure 10), the feed channels have a narrow serpentine shape with several baffles and 180° bends [10, 45]. ED stacks in the sheet flow arrangement make use of net spacers (Figure 11), while the most commercialised tortuous flow path spacers are manufactured by gluing two sheets of polyethylene provided with straps forming an under/over flow path [45, 170] (Figure 10 (a) and (b)), but in principle they can be manufactured also with conventional net spacers or profiled membranes. Finally, flow paths with intermediate features between the sheet flow and the tortuous path have been developed, e.g. the U- shaped channels [45] (Figure 10 (c)). Parallel-, counter-, and cross-flow arrangements are possible in ED stacks. In principle, counter-flow is preferable since it does not suffer from the strong axial increase of concentration difference typical 34PDF Image | Electrodialysis for water desalination
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