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Figure 11. Different kinds of conventional [284] and non-conventional net spacer: (a) extruded with overlapped crossing filaments at 90°, (b) extruded with overlapped crossing filaments at 60/120°, (c) extruded with crossing filaments at 60/120° with irregular shape, (d) extruded with crossing filaments at 60/120°with very irregular shape, (e) with woven crossing filaments at 90°, (f) with woven crossing filaments at 90°, but coarser than (e), (g) twisted spacer [222], (h) multi-layer spacer [222], (i) spacer with modified filaments [230], (j) multi-layer spacer with twisted tapes [230], (k) triple-layer overlapped spacer [269], (l) overlapped spacer with filaments characterized by different regions [270], (m) floating one-layer net with spherical nodes spacers [271], (n) irregular overlapped spacer obtained by X-ray computed tomography of a commercial spacer [274]. Floating spacers [195] have been also devised. The main feature of the floating spacers is the ability to avoid contact areas between spacer and membrane surface, thus minimizing regions of stagnant flow. Floating spacers can be used in asymmetric stacks with different channel thickness of the diluate and of the concentrate channel caused by a stationary differential pressure over the membrane. Conversely, if dimensional stability is required, a suitable control of the pressure gradient along the 37PDF Image | Electrodialysis for water desalination
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