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Notwithstanding the advantages pointed out, conductive spacers have never been implemented in real industrial ED units, likely because of higher production costs, lower robustness and larger complexity. More recently, profiled membranes (Figure 12) have been proposed as a cheaper and more effective alternative to conductive spacers. In this case, the membrane surface (on either one or both sides) is provided with reliefs, pillars, or ridges that play the role of “spacers” [10, 50]. The use of profiled membranes leads to a simplification in stack assembly (the use of spacers is avoided), along with some advantages typical of conductive spacers, such as the reduction of Ohmic resistance and the possibility to increase the active area. The actual mass transfer rate will then depend also on the effects on the fluid mixing due to the specific geometry, which can be quite similar to that of overlapped- filaments spacers or much simpler (as in the case of one-side ridges, waves or pillar profiles, see Figure 12 (e), (f) and (g)). Similarly, pressure drops are strongly affected by the profiles geometry. Moreover, cost savings on stack components [288] and lower fouling issues [289] may be achieved. Strathmann [10] reported data of ED stacks built with profiled membranes with trapezoidal cross section profiles as shown in Figure 12 (b), (c) and (d). The increase of membrane surface due to the profiles was between 40 and 45%. The abatement of resistance, especially at low salt concentrations, and a significant increase of the limiting current density, led to enhanced performance in salt removal as the voltage varied, with larger improvements when the inlet concentration was lower. Balster et al. [290] prepared and characterized a novel membrane design, referred as “membrane with integrated spacer”, where the profiles were obtained by capillary forces of a drying polymer solution in contact with a net spacer (which is then removed). This membrane showed better performance than the corresponding flat membrane and the authors suggested also the application either in spacerless systems or in multi-layer systems [222] including a middle spacer. Another particular geometry of profiled membrane was obtained by hot pressing a membrane sandwiched between two fabrics [291]. 39PDF Image | Electrodialysis for water desalination
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