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In order to give an idea of the role played by pressure drop in determining the energetic consumption of ED systems, we report some data in the following. The influence of pumping power varies widely on the basis of the stack design and of the operating conditions [39, 226, 288, 310]. It may be relatively low in ED devices with short path lengths [226] (and even negligible in microfluidic devices for lab tests [189]), so that it has even been neglected in some cost effectiveness assessments [174]; however, it may be significant or even dominant in longer modules. Chiapello and Bernard [41] recorded pumping energy consumptions of ~23% and ~16% of the total energy in two sheet flow modules 46 cm long, while von Gottberg [45] reported values of ~24% and ~39% for a stack with U- shaped channels (with net spacers) and for a tortuous flow path stack, respectively, both at industrial scale. 4.4.6 ED stacks operated under oscillating conditions A number of recent papers have highlighted how transport phenomena and, more in general, process efficiency can be enhanced by operating ED units in non-stationary conditions. Oscillations applied by dynamically changing either the flow rate [225, 232, 262, 311] or the electrical field [153, 154, 165–167, 173, 191, 312, 313] can achieve an intensification of ED systems performance. Pulsed flows or pulsed electric fields at relatively high frequencies (thus, with a time constant much smaller than the large characteristic time scales for diffusion typical of high Schmidt numbers systems) caused the DBL to be disrupted and the concentration profile to flatten, with transient concentration fields different from a sequence of steady states. Consequently, concentration polarization and its effects can be significantly reduced (i.e. higher limiting currents and lower resistances are achieved). Benefits coming from oscillations depend on frequency, amplitude and shape of oscillation. The correlations for the time-averaged Sherwood number will include also the Strouhal number, a dimensionless number taking into account the oscillating features of the system [225]. In a recent paper, Rodrigues et al. [232] measured limiting current densities with a 8-electrode cell fed by a pulsatile flow generated with solenoid valves with frequencies between 1 and 50 Hz. In the case of an empty (spacerless) channel, the pulsatile flow enhanced mass transfer at frequencies of 50 Hz, with effects that increased towards the channel outlet. When a spacer was inserted within the cell, mass transfer exhibited an increase up to 50% with respect to the stationary case, with larger effects at higher frequencies and higher Re values. Again, the effect was particularly intense near the channel outlet, close to the source of oscillation. A novel concept, named “breathing cell” and based on the application of oscillating conditions, was proposed and tested for reverse electrodialysis systems (see Section 6.6) by Moreno et al. [262]. In 45PDF Image | Electrodialysis for water desalination
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