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the breathing cell, the channels thickness changes dynamically over time in a two-stage cycle by closure of the outlet hydraulic circuit of the concentrated stream, operated by an electronic valve, while maintaining the pump switched on. By cutting the central part of the original spacer and replacing it with a thinner one in the diluate channel, spacers are floating periodically in dilute and concentrate channels. When the valve is closed, the pressure inside the concentrate compartments increases, thus causing the concentrate compartment thickness to increase, while the dilute channel thickness decreases. As a result, the Ohmic resistance of the dilute compartment (which is predominant with respect to the resistance of the concentrate channel) is reduced. Then the valve is opened and the initial conditions are restored. This is repeated in cycles at low frequencies (5 and 15 cycles per minute), such as to allow the complete deformation of membranes. Moreover, some effects on the concentration polarization are expected. The cyclic operation of the stack leads to higher net power densities in a wider range of flow rates with respect to the case of conventional stack with intermembrane distance in the dilute channel equal to the inner spacer thickness, although the maximum net power density was slightly lower. This resulted from a better compromise in a wider range of flow rates between the stack resistance (higher in the breathing cell) and the pressure drop (lower in the breathing cell). The breathing cell could thus be an interesting concept and, in principle, could be applied to ED units. Nevertheless, the long-term operation of the breathing system still has to be carefully analysed, in order to assess the long-time response of IEMs, which can exhibit viscoelastic behaviour. Moreover, the applicability in industrial size stacks may require some adaptations / special measures to guarantee the mechanical robustness of the overall system. Several experimental tests with pulsed electric fields showed various benefits [153, 154, 165–167, 173, 191, 312, 313]. Besides the positive consequences resulting from a mass transfer enhancement, electrodialyzers operating with oscillating currents are less subject to fouling, scaling and water dissociation. Moreover, they allow higher current efficiencies and operation in overlimiting conditions. Finally, the simple equipment and the inexpensive technology do not pose issues in the scalability for applications also in industrial plants. 4.5 Manifolds and flow distribution 4.5.1 Inlet-outlet manifolds in plate and frame units Although channel features likely play the main role in controlling electromembrane processes performance, attention should be addressed also to the hydrodynamics-related aspects concerning the inlet-outlet distribution systems, commonly indicated as inlet/outlet manifolds (see Figure 3). 46PDF Image | Electrodialysis for water desalination
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