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Experimental data and simulations of sheet flow (R)ED stacks revealed that the friction losses per unit length along the channels may be much larger (by one or two orders of magnitude) than in the case of the empty channel of large streamwise and spanwise extent; however, a significant (or even dominant) contribution to the overall pressure drop can be due to the manifolds [2–4, 284, 314–319]. For example, Veerman et al. [316] fed a 25×75 cm2 stack from either the long side or the short side, finding that overall pressure drops were not proportional to the path length. This indicates that pressure drops were largely due to friction losses concentrated at the inlet-outlet regions. Moreover, Vermaas et al. [4] tested a stack with a very simple channel geometry (using profiled membranes), estimating that the measured pressure drops were ~13 folds higher than pressure drops theoretically predicted within the channels. These findings indicate that a large portion of the total pressure drop occurs within the manifolds. In fact, the manifolds are created by virtual cylindrical ducts in spacers, gaskets and membranes with large variations of cross-section, and thus of fluid velocity, at the inlet/outlet zones of the channel (Figure 3, Figure 15 (a)). Nevertheless, an improved geometry of the distribution system can dramatically reduce this localized loss, as it happens in stacks with wide and sufficiently thick manifolds [260, 320] (Figure 15 (b)). This kind of design is specifically suitable for cross-flow stacks, with manifolds as wide as the compartments. Figure 15. (a) Compartment geometry with large cross-section variations at the entrance/exit regions (adapted from [313]). (b) Stack with manifolds as wide as the channels for cross-flow configuration (adapted from [260]). The manifolds geometry, along with the channel features and the operating conditions (flow rate and relative direction of the concentrate and diluate streams), also affect the distribution of flow rates (and thus of pressure) among the compartments and in each compartment, with consequences on non- Ohmic resistances, solution leakages from the concentrate channel towards the dilute one and vice 47PDF Image | Electrodialysis for water desalination
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