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continuous structures made by either ridges or waves led to preferential flow paths, and also to higher pressure drops. Figure 16. Visualisation of the flow distribution by ink-injection in a flow cell equipped with profiled membrane with (a) ridges, (b) waves, (c) pillars [259]. Turek and Mitko [326] proposed an experimental method for the investigation of residence time distribution in working electrodialyzers, when the applied current causes ion migration and electroosmotic water flux. It was shown that electroosmotic flux, which increases the fluid velocity in the concentrate compartment, changes the hydrodynamic conditions, concluding that (i) the risk of scaling is more pronounced when there are changes in residence time, and (ii) in counter-current mode the flow may be far from the often-assumed plug flow. Enciso et al. [327] simulated hydrodynamics and mass transfer in a filter press type electrodialysis reactor (with spacerless channels) by using the finite element method. Simulation results and experiments with a tracer (followed by a digital image analysis) highlighted the presence of stagnant zones, recirculation and preferential flow paths. In conclusion, both modelling and experimental tools can be effective for the investigation of hydrodynamics in ED units at large scale and reveal interesting perspectives for stack design and optimisation. 5. Process models and simulation tools for electrodialysis and related processes As already pointed out in the previous sections, in order accurately to describe the ED process and develop effective process simulation tools it is necessary to implement mathematical models able to take into account a number of complex phenomena. These include solution-membrane equilibria, concentration polarisation and fluid flow behaviour along channels, mass transport phenomena and 49PDF Image | Electrodialysis for water desalination
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