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phenomena governing the operation of real ED units. This represents a limitation when a model is needed to analyse the behaviour of the ED process in detail, especially for optimisation purposes. Another important limitation is represented by the fact that these basic model formulations strongly rely on experimentally fitted constants, implying that the model has to be finely calibrated according to the specific unit to be simulated. 6. Special applications of electrodialysis Several ED-related processes, based on the use of IEMs, have been proposed and are still arousing interest among researchers around the world. These special technologies, expanding the application field of ED and promoting the development of system components and the optimization of devices, are discussed in this section. 6.1 Electrodialysis with bipolar membranes Electrodialysis with BiPolar Membranes (EBPM) is a process based on the use of special IEMs, namely bipolar membranes (BPM, see Section 3.2) constituted by a double layer of adhering anion and cation exchange membranes, mostly used for the production of acids and bases from salt solutions. An EBPM stack is composed by alternating an AEM, a BPM and a CEM. These three membranes together with three channels represent the repeating unit of the EBPM stack (Figure 20). A salt solution flows in between the AEM and the CEM, while an acid and a basic solution flow in the other two channels respectively [10]. When an electrical potential is applied to the electrodes, water trapped inside bipolar membranes is induced to split catalytically into H+ and OH- ions, which will pass through the cationic and anionic layer of the BPM, reaching the acidic and alkaline compartment, respectively. At the same time, anions and cations from the salt solution migrate through IEMs, electrically balancing the passage of H+ and OH-, thus restoring electroneutrality and generating the acid and base solutions. Although the three cells compartment is the most diffused configuration, sometimes a two compartment scheme is used, in which only one type of product (either acid or base solution) is obtained, while the salt solution absorbs also the excess H+ or OH- generated. This can happen especially when it is not possible or convenient to obtain a high purity for both acid and base [362]. EBPM is an industrial competitor of electrolysis for the production of acid and base compounds. Several works in the literature show how EBPM can reach very low energy consumptions, especially assuming ideally conductive and permselective membranes. Nevertheless, in practical applications 66PDF Image | Electrodialysis for water desalination
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