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counterbalanced by the electric potential difference generated in each membrane by the Donnan equilibrium (see Section 3.1). This potential difference is typically addressed as the open circuit voltage and represents the electromotive force of the RED generator. When the circuit is closed, ions start to move from the concentrate channels to the dilute ones oriented by the presence of selective IEMs. Thus, positive ions will move towards the cathode passing through CEMs and negative ions will move in the opposite direction, thus generating a net ionic current through the cell pairs. In analogy with ED, the net flux of charges is eventually converted into a flux of electrons in the final compartments of the stack, where electrodes are placed and redox reactions occur. The current of electrons generated at the electrodes can be used to supply an external load [277, 340, 388, 389]. As in standard electric energy generators, also in a RED stack the increase in electric current (related to a reduction in the external load resistance) leads to internal voltage drops, which reduce the available voltage at the stack electrodes, leading to the extreme condition in which a short-cut circuit between electrodes generates the maximum current depleting completely the electromotive force generated in the pile. It can be demonstrated that the maximum power density can be obtained when the resistance of the external load matches the internal resistance of the stack. Under this condition, only 50% of the available Gibbs free energy of mixing can be theoretically harvested. Figure 25. Scheme of Reverse Electrodialysis process. It is worth mentioning that, under practical conditions, only a portion of this energy can actually be converted into electric energy. Thus, since the amount of electricity producible is not high, all detrimental effects as Ohmic and non-Ohmic resistances and pumping losses due to pressure drops represent matters of crucial importance. In particular, a maximum in the net power density (i.e. gross power density minus pumping power density) is typically found for streams velocity around or below 73PDF Image | Electrodialysis for water desalination
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