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1 cm/s [284]. At these flow rates, the power output reduction due to pumping power normally amounts to about 10-20% for spacer-filled channels RED units [281] and to about 3-25% in RED systems where profiled membranes are used [4, 259, 260]. The channel thickness is usually in the order of a few hundred microns to keep the channels’ electrical resistance low. These aspects mark a difference from ED where thicker channels and larger stream velocities are adopted. The performance of RED units has rapidly increased during the last years, moving from generated power densities of 0.05 W/m2 reported in the early ‘50s by Pattle [390], who first conceptualised the RED process, to values of 1-2 W/m2 recently obtained by Veerman et al. [391] and Veermaas et al. [3] mixing solutions simulating river and sea water (see Table 1). The highest values of power density, however, were recently achieved by mixing solutions simulating fresh or brackish water and concentrated brines at temperatures of 40 or 60°C, reaching values up to ~6.70 W/m2 [5, 392, 393]. A more detailed chronology of the RED technology development is reported in Table 1. Table 1: Chronological trend of increasing power densities achieved in laboratory scale RED systems. Experimental conditions are also reported (adapted from [393]). Year 1955 1976 1983 1986 2007 2008 2008 2011 2014 2015 Authors Pattle [390] Weinstein and Leitz [394] Audinos [395] Jagur-Grodzinski and Kramer [396] Turek and Bandura [397] Turek et al. [398] Veerman et al. [391] Vermaas et al. [3] Daniilidis et al. [5] Tedesco et al. [393] Power density (W/m2) 0.05 0.17 0.40 0.41 0.46 0.87 0.93 2.20 5.30 6.04 Spacer Thickness (m) 1000 1000 1000 250 190 190 200 60 100 270 Solution concentrations (M) Non specified 0.02–0.57 4.3 tap water and seawater 0.01–0.5 0.01–1.9 0.017–0.5 0.017–0.5 0.01–5 0.1–5 Temperature (°C) 2014 Daniilidis et al. [5] 6.70 100 39 Ambient Ambient Ambient Ambient Ambient Ambient Ambient 40 40 0.01–5 60 During the last years, research achievements have pushed up the RED Technological Readiness Level (TRL), allowing the shift from lab-scale units to the first prototypes and pilot plants. Two different pilot plants have been built so far as outcomes of two different projects: Blue Energy and REAPower. Both plants are located in Europe. 74PDF Image | Electrodialysis for water desalination
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