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The Blue Energy pilot plant is located in Breezanddijk at the Afsluitdijk closure dam (the Netherlands) where seawater and river water are available with an intake capacity of 200 m3/h. Assuming a technical potential of 1 MJ per m3 of sea and river water [399], this flow rate has a potential for energy generation of 50 kW [400]. The REAPower pilot plant was installed in Marsala (Sicily, Italy) in 2014 within a saltworks area where solutions at different salinities were available such as: a concentrated brine from evaporating basins, seawater and brackish water from a shoreline well [392, 401]. The concentration of the brine changes during the year ranging between 3 and 5 M (in terms of NaClequivalent concentration), while the concentration of brackish water is quite constant and equal to 0.03 M (in terms of NaClequivalent concentration). The pilot plant, consisting of 3 different RED stacks, had a nominal capacity of about 1 kW, reaching under real operation a power output of almost 700 W with artificial solutions and about 330 W with real brackish water and brine [8]. Interestingly, the plant was tested for several months without encountering any performance reduction [401]. Very recently, the RED technology has been also proposed in a closed loop arrangement as a promising way to convert low-temperature waste heat (below 100 °C) into electric energy [402–405]. Two artificial solutions at different salinities are used in a RED unit to produce electricity, exiting as partially mixed streams. These are fed to a regeneration unit powered with low-grade heat where the initial salinity gradient is restored, thereby closing the cycle. Perspective analyses have recently shown that conversion efficiencies up to 10-15% can potentially be achieved in these systems [406]. Closed-loop RED/ED systems have also been proposed for SGP-based energy storage applications, in which energy is stored in the form of salinity gradients. These are converted into electricity in peak demand hours, while, when surplus energy is available, this is used to regenerate the depleted salinity gradient [407, 408]. 6.7 RED-ED couplings for low-energy desalination A very recent development in the field of ED for desalination is represented by the coupling with salinity gradient power or osmotic dilution devices for low-energy desalination [409]. Among the different alternatives that have been theorised, the coupling of RED with ED (or, more in general, with a desalination unit such as RO or even CDI [410]) may result in a technological breakthrough, especially for seawater desalination [9, 411–415]. Figure 26 shows the two main coupling possibilities. 75PDF Image | Electrodialysis for water desalination
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