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The subsequent part of this review has focused on the analysis of process-modelling tools developed so far. These can be divided into a class of simplified models, proposed for preliminary design purposes, and a wider class of advanced modelling tools, more recently proposed for simulation, design and optimisation of ED or other electromembrane processes. These latter are often based on a multi-scale approach, merging the information originated from the CFD or experimental characterisation of mass and momentum transport phenomena with higher-scale mass balances and phenomenological equations. In all cases, the complexity of phenomena governing these processes highlights the need for further development of advanced modelling and optimisation tools for process adaptation to the wide spectrum of novel applications for all ED-related technologies. Among the main boosters for ED technologies, the development of special applications, based on the use of IEMs, has been critically analysed. This has highlighted how some of these novel applications, such as RED, SED, EDM, shock ED, etc., are still raising the interest of researchers and industrial actors, often leading to the construction of pilot installations and, in some cases, to the first commercialisation examples of such new ideas. Interestingly, this applies not only to the field of saline water desalination, but more in general to water treatment for food, pharmaceutical and electronics industries, industrial brines valorisation, minerals recovery and energy generation from salinity gradients. All this is strongly promoting the overall development of IEMs-based technologies, thus projecting ED and related processes towards a new horizon of applications and new markets. Acknowledgments Part of this work has been carried out thanks to the financial support of the European Union’s Horizon 2020 research and innovation programme, within the REvivED water project (www.revivedwater.eu), Grant Agreement no. 685579. 79PDF Image | Electrodialysis for water desalination
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