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Membranes 2020, 10, 221 5 of 72 Membranes 2020, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 5 of 73 experienced a very significant boom in its urbanization from the 1990s with the rise of the Chinese significant boom in its urbanization from the 1990s with the rise of the Chinese economy [15–17]. economy [15–17]. Hence, between the beginnings of the country’s opening to a market economy in Hence, between the beginnings of the country’s opening to a market economy in 1978 and 2013, 1978 and 2013, the Chinese urban population increased more than fourfold, from 172 to 731 million the Chinese urban population increased more than fourfold, from 172 to 731 million people. As a people. As a consequence, in the last fifteen years and up to now, the new manufacturers were mainly consequence, in the last fifteen years and up to now, the new manufacturers were mainly coming coming from China. This second, quite exponential, increase is probably related to the acceleration from China. This second, quite exponential, increase is probably related to the acceleration of the of the Asia–Pacific population urbanization, to support the spectacular growth of the economy in this Asia–Pacific population urbanization, to support the spectacular growth of the economy in this region: region: In China, the urban population exceeded the 50% threshold for the first time in 2011. Such a In China, the urban population exceeded the 50% threshold for the first time in 2011. Such a growing growing urban population is presaged to cause a surge in China’s and more generally Asian’s urban population is presaged to cause a surge in China’s and more generally Asian’s consuming consuming capacity in the next decades [18]. This also means more potable water to be produced and capacity in the next decades [18]. This also means more potable water to be produced and more more waste water generated by the industries to be treated in order to avoid water spoilage and waste water generated by the industries to be treated in order to avoid water spoilage and decrease decrease environmental impacts. This also explains the fact, that these new companies in environmental impacts. This also explains the fact, that these new companies in electrodialytic systems, electrodialytic systems, when looking at their activities, are orientated to the production of potable when looking at their activities, are orientated to the production of potable water and water treatment. water and water treatment. In 2020, seawater desalination and recycling wastewater represents more In 2020, seawater desalination and recycling wastewater represents more than 70% of the electrodialytic than 70% of the electrodialytic applications. Considering the future trends in electrodialytic system applications. Considering the future trends in electrodialytic system applications, water will be, for the applications, water will be, for the next decades, a main concern and a still increasing market for the next decades, a main concern and a still increasing market for the application and development of application and development of electrodialytic systems. electrodialytic systems. 50 45 40 35 30 25 20 15 10 5 0 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010 2015 2020 Australia Czech Republic China Japan India Germany France United Kingdom United States Russia Lithuania Netherlands Canada Figure 3. Evolution of the number of electrodialytic system manufacturers around the World from 1970 Figure 3. Evolution of the number of electrodialytic system manufacturers around the World from to 2020. 1970 to 2020. 3. Membrane Phenomena 3. Membrane Phenomena During ED process, different phenomena appear following mass transfer such as concentration During ED process, different phenomena appear following mass transfer such as concentration gradients at the membrane interfaces, concentration polarization of the membrane and reaching gradients at the membrane interfaces, concentration polarization of the membrane and reaching a a limiting current density after the transport, more or less forced, of ions across the ion-exchange limiting current density after the transport, more or less forced, of ions across the ion-exchange membranes. Furthermore, the formation of electroconvective vortices at the surface of the membranes membranes. Furthermore, the formation of electroconvective vortices at the surface of the has recently been reported and visualized when the limiting current value is exceeded, increasing so membranes has recently been reported and visualized when the limiting current value is exceeded, the mass transfer. increasing so the mass transfer. 3.1. Mass Transfer 3.1. Mass Transfer During conventional ED, the mass transfer from a diluate solution to the concentrate solution througDhutrhinegiocno-nevxechnatinognealmEeDm,bthraenme oacsscutrsaninsffiervefrsotmepas duileuatotethsoelfuotrimonationthoefcdoinffcuesniotrnatbeousonlduatiroyn lathyreorsug(DhBthLe)oiofnla-emxicnharnflgoewmoemnborathnesiodcecuorfsthinefmiveemsbterpansedu(Feigtourtehe4)fo[1rm1]:ationofdiffusionboundary layers (DBL) of laminar flow on both side of the membrane (Figure 4) [11]: 1. 1. The transport by migration (JMigr) of charged species under an electric field from the diluate solution i Migr The transport by migration ( J ) of charged species under an electric field from the diluate i to the DBL near the membrane according to the Faraday’s law: solution to the DBL near the membrane according to the Faraday’s law: Manufacturers (Number)PDF Image | Electrodialytic Processes
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