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Membranes 2020, 10, 221 21 of 72 Table 1. Mitigation of different fouling natures during electrodialysis, of model and complex solutions, under pulsed electric field regimes and impact on energy consumption and mass transfer (demineralisation rate, removal efficiency, current efficiency or molecule recovery). DR: demineralization rate, CC: continuous current, CE: Current efficiency, LARR: Lactic acid recovery rate, RE: Removal efficiency, REC: Relative energy consumption. Fouling Humate Lignin Solution Model salt solution (0.01 M NaCl + 0.01% sodium humate) Kraft black liquor Sodium gluconate mother liquor Current Density 6 mA/cm2 330 A/m2 Between 9 and 15 mA/cm2 Pulse/Pause - - 6 s/6 s 6 s/12 s 6 s/18 s 6 s/24 s 4 s/1 s vs. CC Pulse/Pause Ratio (Frequency) 60, 100 and 200 Hz 10-500 Hz 1 (0.08 Hz) 0.5 (0.055 Hz) 0.33 (0.041 Hz) 0.25 (0.033 Hz) 4 (0.2 Hz) Membrane Studied AEM CEM and AEM CEM and BPM CEM and AEM Fouling Mitigation - 100 Hz gave the least fouling tendency - 30 Hz presented the least fouling - No fouling of BPM and CEM for 6 s/24 s - Increase in current efficiency with an increase in pause duration - 70% Decrease in AEM fouling vs. Constant voltage - No fouling for CEM whatever the mode of voltage Energy/Relative Energy Consumption Not indicated Not indicated 3.2 Wh/g NaOH 2.9 Wh/g NaOH 2.7 Wh/g NaOH 2.6 Wh/g NaOH CC = 3.6 Wh/g NaOH 194.4 kWh/t 201.7 kWh/t for CC Mass Tranfer Efficiency Not indicated CE ≈ 84% at 30 Hz CE ≈ 77% for CC CE ≈ 57% CE ≈ 60% CE ≈ 70% CE ≈ 80% CE ≈ 48% DR = 25.2%, CE = 45.9% DR = 18.9%, CE = 44.6% for CC References [39] [102] [106] [115] Amino acid/Peptide Snow crab by-product hydrolysate 20 and 40 V 2 s/0.2 s vs. CC 10 (0.45 Hz) CEM and AEM - Significant fouling reduction by PEF - AEM fouling depends strongly on applied voltage but not for CEMs. CC: 806 Wh/g of peptide recovered 20 V- PEF: 656 Wh/g 40 V-PEF: 894 Wh/g The peptide/amino acid migration was the same between CC and PEf but was increased by 30% at 40 V DR slightly higher in PEF mode at 40 V. [105] Ion-exchange spent brine 34 mA/cm2 2 s/0.5 s vs. CC 4 (0.4 Hz)) AEM and CEM - Reduction in deposition of negatively charged NOM fractions No difference in REC whatever the condition, REC ≤ 2.1 Wh/g NaCl produced DR = 89–96% DR =90–91% for CC [107] Natural organic matter Lysine fermentation broth 10 mA/cm2 Half-wave power (37 min constant current over 180 min) and CC (12min over 180 min) Frequency of 60 Hz for half-wave power CEM and AEM - 22% decrease in final stack resistance REC = 2.7 kWh/m3 for half-wave REC = 3.8 kWh/m3 DR = 45.6% DR = 34.1% for CC [116] Lysine fermentation waste 25 mA/cm2 Half-wave power (105 min constant current over 300 min) and DC power (125 min over 420 min) - CEM and AEM - 65% decrease of the electrodialysis membrane fouling index for half-wave power REC = 58 kWh/m3 for half-wave REC = 124 kWh/m3 RE = 66.3 and 85.2% for ammonium and sulfate respectively with half-wave. RE = 52.2 and 65.4% with CC [117] Protein Salt solution containing casein 10, 20 and 30 mA/cm2 10 s/10 s 10 s/40 s 1 (0.05 Hz), 0.25 (0.02 Hz) AEM - No fouling at 10 s/40 s whatever the current density - No fouling at 10 s/10 s and 10 mA/cm2 0.25, 1.09 and 2.85 Wh for 10 s /10 s 0.25, 1.01 and 2.75 Wh for 10 s /40 s 0.30, 1.33 and 2.77 Wh for CC DR = 10.5, 13.1 and 18.7% at 10, 20 and 30 mA/cm2 whatever the current mode. [103]PDF Image | Electrodialytic Processes
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