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Membranes 2020, 10, 221 25 of 72 Figure 13. Schematic representation of the studied surface area comprised in the eight PEF conditions tested. Each condition is represented by a table including in the first row: its process duration (in h), its final electrical resistance reduction from the CC application results reported by Dufton et al. [113] (in %) and its relative energy consumption (in Wh/g of lactic acid removed). The second row includes the demineralization rates of calcium, magnesium and sodium (in %), while the third row report the amount of scaling on the AEMs (in g/100 g of dry membrane). The shades of grey represent the position of the condition among the others: the lighter the grey, the better the result in term of acid whey treatment (adapted from Dufton et al. [83]). For Energy Efficiency Beyond the reduction in fouling, the pulsed electric field parameters have also major influence on the global process energy efficiency. However, very few studies compared systematically the impact of the pulse and pause durations, pulse and pause ratio and/or frequency as well as calculation of the energy consumption of the same basis to be able to find the optimum conditions in terms of energy consumption (Table 1). Hence, on Figure 14, the relative energy consumption (REC) from different studies and for different solutions was expressed in Wh/1000 C in order to compare these processes. Here, the representation of the REC as a function of pulse and pause durations was chosen, since REC as a function of frequency or ratio did not give any conclusive results. It appeared that the optimum REC zone is different according to the solution to be treated. Indeed, for model salt solutions containing a magnesium/calcium ratio of 2/5, close to the mineral composition of milk, the best conditions appeared to be pulse durations between 6–10 s with pause durations lower than 1 s (corresponding to pulse/pause ratios over 6 and frequencies lower than 0.16 Hz). For these solutions the optimum combination seems to be in a quite narrow zone. For more complex solutions containing not only salts, the optimum zone seems to be wider. Hence, for acid whey the best conditions would be with pulse durations lower than 10 s, or more specifically pulse durations lower than 10 s and pause durations around 15 s (corresponding to pulse/pause ratios lower than 1 and frequencies higher than 0.04 Hz) and for polymer flooding produced water with pulse durations over 50 s, or more precisely pulse durations over 50 s and pause durations lower than 20 s but over 0.1 s (corresponding to pulse/pause ratios higher than 2.5 and frequencies lower than 0.02 Hz). On acid whey demineralization and lactic acid recovery, the energy gain would be due to the cumulative effect of scaling mitigation and lower ohmic resistance of the diffusion layer after the pause lapse. This allowed, for a short moment after current re-establishment, a concentration polarization higher than the one normally allowed by the actual limiting current density. This gain was more visible at higher frequencies such as the ones used by Sistat et al. [121] on model salt solution and Lemay et al. [64] on sweet whey.PDF Image | Electrodialytic Processes
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