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Membranes 2020, 10, 221 29 of 72 one component should be taken into account, since these components are linked. Indeed, if a fouling appears rapidly at the beginning or during the process, as with the use of BPM generating H+ (inducing protein precipitation) and OH− (inducing lignin precipitation or scaling), the energy consumption as well as the demineralization rate or more generally the mass transfer will decrease due to the current efficiency decrease. In this case, the fouling/scaling mitigation will first dictate the choice of PEF conditions, to allow the process being carried out [106]. If no major fouling appears, drastically slowing down the process, the choice will be dictated by the energy consumption related to the species of interest for reaching the desirable migration rate. However, in this second case, a fouling or scaling can appear during the process, due to the LCD reaching, linked with (1) a high demineralization rate for example (generation of H+ and OH− at the IEM inducing fouling/scaling) or/and (2) the solubility constant of a species related to its high concentration at the IEMs interface due to the membrane permselectivity (inducing its precipitation and scaling). Indeed, for scaling/fouling that could appear during the process, and decrease the global efficiency of the process for consecutive runs or if no sufficient or not adapted cleaning-in-place procedures are used, the choice of PEF conditions can be completed taking into account its impact on ECVs and the polarisation concentration phenomenon. In fact, the best conditions would be a pulse duration over the duration of vortex appearance (about 0.1 s [51]) and lower than the concentration polarization formation (about 1 s [66,101]) and a pause duration lower than the duration for vortex disappearance (about 0.5 s [112]) as demonstrated by Lemay et al. [64,65]. Hence, in sub-limiting conditions, such a condition of PEF will favor the presence of vortices, eliminating the concentration polarisation phenomenon as well as diminishing the water splitting appearance when high demineralization rates are aimed and consequently the possibility of scaling or fouling. In parallel these conditions would maintain or increase the relative energy consumption by increasing the mass transfer enhanced by the constant presence of vortices. Such conditions would then take advantage of the overlimiting conditions (vortices, decrease in polarisation concentration and increase in mass transfer) without the inconvenient linked to a greatly higher relative energy consumption [90]. 4. Recent Technological Developments Based on ED Membrane Phenomena While ED is steadily increasing its influence over the market of pure water production, researchers and engineers are still pursuing ways for improving its performance. To that end, new technologies derivate from conventional ED are developed and lead to unveiling new types of applications usually complementary to pure water production. This part is dedicated to the latest advances (applications of electroconvection phenomenon, pulsed-electric field, technological improvement or design ... ) reported for ED technologies presented in Figure 1. Aiming at presenting ED membrane phenomena-based processes, some technologies were not detailed: membrane-free electrodeionization [123], electrostatic shielding electrodeionization [124] used for metal ion removal, microbial desalination cell for wastewater treatment, pure water and energy production [125] and redox flow battery for energy production [126]. Furthermore, the lack of recent developments led us to not detailed electro-ion injection-extraction (EIIE), electro-ion substitution (EIS) and electrometathesis (EMT) [127–129], mostly used for the recovery of organic acids. 4.1. ED in Overlimiting/Electroconvective Conditions Very recently, the application of ED in electroconvective conditions was evaluated on complex solutions. Hence, Santana Barros et al., evaluated the impact of underlimiting and overlimiting current conditions during ED of a cyanide-free wastewater from brass electrodeposition [91]. According to these authors, the water dissociation phenomenon, the reaction of protons with complexes and insoluble species, the intense electric field and the electroconvection may have allowed the migration of the co-ions Cu2+ and Zn2+ through the CEM, favoring their extraction. The overlimiting phenomena accounted for the improvement of the percent extraction and percent concentration, since the concentrate compartments of the electrodialysis stack were connected to the same reservoir. ChronopotentiometricPDF Image | Electrodialytic Processes
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