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Membranes 2020, 10, 221 38 of 72 which improve duration, effective ion removal and energy consumption of the process [197,198]. It is also possible to process higher salinity streams than when using static porous carbon electrodes [195,198]. Latest advances showed that it is possible to further improve the overall cell conductivity and charge efficiency by working in overlimiting conditions and thus bolstering electroconvection [199]. Liang et al. [200] also enhanced the charge efficiency by adding carbon black as a conductive agent in the flow-electrode compartments. In another study, AEM-electrode assembly was found to reduce potential drop and provide a more homogeneous electric field [201]. Ma et al. [202] investigated the stacking of multiple membrane pairs in a FCDI cell and demonstrated the feasibility of semi-continuous operation with two membrane pairs. However, hurdles regarding scale-up considerations are still high, especially the possibility of water transfer through the IEMs. Figure 19. Principle of flow-electrode capacitive deionization. CEM: cation-exchange membrane; AEM: anion-exchange membrane; A−: anions; C+: cations. Although CDI municipal waste water desalination units exists at large scale (e.g., more than 30 industrial systems in China with 100–2000 m3/h capacities), MCDI is still struggling for implementation at industrial scale. Membrane cost and performances are critical factors. In addition to recent FCDI developments, Suss et al. [195] suggested that the development of PIM adapted to MCDI could be a decisive step forward as it would help prevent leakage of unwanted ionic species and water. 4.8. Continuous Electrodeionization (CEDI) Called electrochemical deionization, electrodeionization (EDI) or conductive electrodialysis (CED), this particular variant of ED appeared in the 1950s and is now considered as a next-generation technology and a green process for water purification such as deionized water [203,204]. Its development was relatively slow due to the difficulty to grasp its kinetics mechanisms. EDI is based on an electrodialytic cell which use ion-exchange (IX) resin to improve ion flux through the membranes and conductivity as display in Figure 20a [205]. Resin beads can either be placed in the dilute compartment or both dilute and concentrate. Moreover, anion-exchange resin and cation-exchange resin beads can be placed in separate compartments or in the same one leading to mixed IX resin beads [206,207]. The EDI process can be summed up in 2 main steps: the diffusion, in the dilute, of cations and anions through the anion-exchange resin and cation-exchange resin beads, respectively, corresponding to the IX step, then, after ionic diffusion from the beads to the membrane, ions are migrated through the membrane, under the effect of the electric field, which corresponds to the ED step [4,208]. Compared to conventional ED, EDI has a lower electrical resistance allowing to process low concentration streams [205]. And while ion mobility is about 20 times greater in solution than within the solid IX resin, the ionogenic sitesPDF Image | Electrodialytic Processes
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