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Membranes 2020, 10, 221 40 of 72 (RW-EDI) for which IX resin is combined with a binding agent to reduce issues of ion leakage and uneven flow distribution. By using a water-dissociation catalyst, Jordan et al. [214] developed a new bipolar ion-exchange resin wafer to promote ion conductivity. Other materials such as ion exchange textile led to improved current efficiencies 1.5 times higher than conventional ED [205]. The comprehension of electrodeionization overlimiting behaviours should promote the next advances in the field. Water-splitting and electroconvection in CEDI exhibit different behaviours compared to overlimiting dynamics observed in conventional ED [208]. In CEDI, there is no distinct plateau in the limiting current regime as opposed to what is observed in ED (see Section 3.3.2). The three regimes in CEDI reflect the increasing conductivity of the IX resin: the transport region (1), the water dissociation region with a higher V–I slope (2) and the limiting current region with an even steeper V–I slope (3) (Figure 20b) [205]. Park and Kwak [208] established that even though different slopes V–I are possible, a unique characteristic of overlimiting CEDI, demonstrating the occurrence of electroconvection, is the sudden increase in the standard deviation when measuring the current multiple times. It differs from the water-splitting region where no substantial current fluctuations are noticeable. When placed at the limit between the two overlimiting zones, microscopic observations of CEDI flow channels showed a synergetic effect of water-splitting and electroconvection [208]. The resulting optimal current efficiency and energy consumption provide a solid basis for further implementation of overlimiting CEDI. 4.9. Shock Electrodialysis (Shock ED) The shock electrodialysis (shock ED, sometimes also referred to as SED but not to be confused with selectrodialysis) technology has been developed in the early 2010s [215], following the mathematical and experimental evidence of “deionization shocks” [216–218]. The deionization shocks can be conceptualized as sharp concentration gradient waves occurring when applying overlimiting current in a weakly charged porous media, sometimes referred as to “leaky membranes” [215]. This discovery lead to the patenting of a desalination and purification process [219]. The principle of shock ED is represented in Figure 21. In overlimiting current conditions, a depletion area is formed following the progression of a concentrated deionization shock front. Furthermore, electroconvection is promoted which allows cations to rapidly be transported through the CEM on the cathodic side. Close to the CEM on the anodic side, the propagation of the shock front leads to the formation of a concentration polarization area consisting of cations transported from the anodic compartment and anions rejected by the CEM. By using a physical splitter, it is then possible to segregate both area into an ion-enriched and a deionized product stream [220–222]. Figure 21. Principle of shock ED. CEM: cation-exchange membrane; A−: anions; C+: cations. The marketing strategy behind shock ED is rather unexpected but compelling. According to Schlumpberger et al. [220], their small-scale prototype is “scalable”, although not yet able to competePDF Image | Electrodialytic Processes
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