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Membranes 2020, 10, 221 46 of 72 the performances of a full-scale RO/CEDI plant for deionized water production. After 18 months, 3.4 million m3 of ultra-pure water (conductivity < 0.1 μS/cm i.e., resistivity > 10 Ω.cm) was produced. More recently, a high efficiency reverse osmosis (HEROTM)/FEDI® process has been implemented in Egypt as a water purification strategy [210]. Nile water and various effluents were successfully converted in ultra-pure water with resistivity ranging between 10 and18 MΩ.cm. Water discharged by geothermal plants is gaining more and more interest as a sustainable source for fresh water [206,287] so current strategies involve RO applied geothermal water followed by CEDI. Although such processes were originally aiming for ultra-pure water (0.05–0.10 μS/cm), recent implementations only manage to reach purified water grade (2–50 μS/cm), which still stands for a high-value product [288]. MCDI was also considered in combination with RO. However, electrode lifespan of MCDI is a critical drawback in the long run when aiming for eco-efficient strategies. The superiority of ED compared to MCDI in terms of energy cost to reach deeper desalination and fouling/scaling control associated to smaller equipment explains why the former is usually preferred for coupling with RO [289]. To mitigate these issues, Chung et al. [197] studied a small-scale RO-FCDI process for sea water desalination. The batch-mode implementation of FCDI in replacement of a second RO pass led to 95% removal while energy consumption (1.3 kWh/m3) was three-times higher than full-scale RO (<0.4 kWh/m3). However, according to the authors’ projections, this difference would be mitigated by scaling-up the technology. 5.1.2. Lower-Grade Fresh Water Drinking water (and even more so, irrigation water) does not require as much ion removal as ultra-pure water used in pharmaceutical, chemical or semi-conductor industries, leading to strategies yielding lower added value but associated to easier implementation. Aiming for zero liquid discharge (ZLD) as part of a fresh water production strategy, Chen et al. [153] studied electrodialysis metathesis (EDM) as a way of concentrating sea water (SW) RO reject brine before low-energy evaporation to recover solid salts, which would otherwise remain as polluting liquid waste. They managed concentration of the brine without cation-induced scaling due to the conversion of problematic low-soluble species into high solubility liquid salts. A previous pilot-scale evaluation of a similar ZLD strategy established that EDM demonstrates better eco-efficiency than thermal distillation for concentrates of 5000–10,000 ppm TDS or less [290]. Other large-scale investigations included RO and NF in their zero discharge desalination (ZDD) strategy applied to ground water. A full-scale plant was able to provide drinkable water with an estimated energy consumption of 2.3 kWh/m3 [291]. RO-EDBM is another strategy to soften water while self-supplying acid and base for maintenance purposes (membrane conditioning, scaling prevention . . . ). Herrero-Gonzalez et al. [292] recently evaluated its environmental sustainability by life cycle assessment (LCA). They showed that the self-supply in chemicals is overshadowed by the increase in energy consumption from coupling both unit operations. The eco-efficiency of the process is then largely depending on the proportion of renewable energy in the grid mix. Taking an original approach, Lejarazu-Larrañaga et al. [293,294] studied the possibility of recycling spent RO membranes into IEMs to be used in ED for drinkable water production. They successfully implemented acid/base activation treatment to approach water fluxes and current efficiencies achieved in ED with commercial membranes, while energy consumption remained higher [294]. Displaying an opposite mode of operation to RO, forward osmosis (FO) recently gained interest being one of the lowest energy-consumption desalination process [295]. It requires an HSS called “draw” that strip water from a lower-concentration feed using osmotic gradient. Subramanian recently patented its coupling with EED as a hybrid FO-EED process for treatment of very high TDS brines (>35,000 ppm) that could not be concentrated other than by using thermal distillation. By using such strategy, he claims a final TDS concentration up to 350,000 ppm as one output, while recovering fresh water usable as drinking, irrigation or industrial water after minimal additional treatment, e.g., UV. The integration of recent advances in membrane-electrode assembly (MEA) are a supplementary option to improve performances [296]. MCDI was investigated for irrigation water production using brackishPDF Image | Electrodialytic Processes
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