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Membranes 2020, 10, 221 47 of 72 water. By coupling farm scale economic data from Australia and single-cell MCDI performance reports, Bales et al. [297] developed a model to evaluate the profitability of the approach. They estimated a final cost < 1 AU$/kL for water of different salinities depending of the crops. Further real-life experiments would confirm these encouraging results and clarify the sustainability of the strategy. Other alternatives for irrigation water production include FO-ED hybrid systems due to the low power consumption inherent to FO [298]. Most of those approaches are based on wastewater and will be developed in Section 5.2.1. 5.1.3. Integration of Energy Production from Salinity Gradient Power As mentioned in Section 4.11, engineers and researchers are still struggling to produce electricity using reverse ED technologies in an economically viable way. Although, simple filtration pre-treatments are implemented, using natural streams at large scale is requiring more extensive steps in order to reach performance levels obtained at smaller scale with artificial NaCl solutions. One strategy consists in increasing the profitability of the process by including water purification as another output. This synergistic approach recently called power-free electrodialysis (PFED) [299] was implemented on several small-scale studies (<200 cm2 effective surface area per membrane) [6,257]. Chen et al. [300] brought back this concept and adapted it for application in an insular environment. An integrated RED-ED stack was used with artificial NaCl brines. The idea of using only one set of electrodes for both types of ED cell did not allow energy recovery for other uses, however it provided an ionic current loop self-powering the system. In order to optimize eco-efficiency, a next step would be to reuse streams generated by one type of ED cell into the other. By doing so, it would limit brine discharge in the environment and ensure better control over the quality of input streams to prevent fouling and scaling, thus improving process performances. Luo et al. [299] investigated such strategy with coupled ED and RED stacks in continuous and batch-wise mode using NaCl and artificial sea water solutions. Concentrated brine generated by ED was used as high-salinity stream (HSS) feed for RED. Although they did not recover electric power generated in excess, they found out that optimal energy output is achieved when resistance of RED and ED stacks is comparable. Other desalination technologies have been used at small-scale to provide HSS for RED. RO coupled with membrane distillation produced superior NaCl concentration allowing the downstream RED to exhibit a power density up to 2.4 W/m2 and near-zero liquid discharge desalination [301]. However, a detailed cost-efficiency analysis would be needed to establish the eco-efficiency of this strategy, especially when considering thermal energy requirements. Tristán et al. [302] carried out such evaluation for a SWRO-RED process. Their detailed LCA study demonstrated the low environmental impact of RED (comparable to solar and wind power systems) and identified that the fabrication of PES membrane spacers is the step with the highest energy cost. While functional, the SWRO-RED strategy would require optimization for better energy recovery and eco-efficiency. SWRO-MCDI-RED was investigated at lab scale and showed better performances and lower energy consumption (by 17%) when compared to two-pass RO [258]. The eco-efficiency evaluation of a multi-effect distillation (MED)-RED process recycling low-temperature waste heat showed promising results when comparing with other sustainable technologies [303]. An alternative configuration consists in implementing “upstream” RED associated with ED or other desalination technologies in order to readily supply power from RED to ED [304]. Recently, a salinity gradient energy storage system (SGESS) was investigated [305]. The two-step process combined a RED phase (discharging) producing energy from streams of different salinities, followed by an ED phase (charging) to regenerate the initial streams at higher salinity than natural streams. Cost analysis showed competitiveness for occidental energy markets if a 10-years lifetime is achieved. Life cycle assessment of a projected full-scale SGESS process led to similar as Li-ion battery productions, albeit in the first quintile of such studies in terms of eco-efficiency results. Campione et al. [10] proposed a more complete RED-ED coupling strategy including two RED stacks. The “upstream” RED stack would function as pre-treatment for a more controlled salinity ofPDF Image | Electrodialytic Processes
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