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Membranes 2020, 10, 221 48 of 72 the ED feed, while the “downstream” stack would act as post-treatment for energy conversion. Further purification by CEDI or recirculation of the low-salinity brine produced by the second RED equipment in the HSS input of the first RED stack would prevent any liquid effluent disposal (zero liquid discharge) providing even better sustainability. Even though current RED capabilities make PFED seems theoretical in such scenario, SED could be used in replacement of ED in order to limit the quantity of divalent cations such as Mg2+ in the feed of the downstream RED, thus leading to better power densities (Figure 24). The resulting Mg2+-enriched effluent could be valorized through struvite precipitation [166] (see Section 5.3). Figure 24. Theoretical PFED strategy (adapted from Campione et al. [10]). RED: reverse electrodialysis; SED: selectrodialysis; CEDI: continuous deionization. 5.2. Zero Liquid Discharge (ZLD) Strategies for Water Depollution There are several options for managing water concentrates: direct discharge, deep well injection, discharge to a wastewater treatment facility or zero liquid discharge (ZLD), the most interesting approach from a sustainable point of view as it eliminates liquid effluent disposal [139,306]. Usually, ZLD strategies involve three steps: concentration, evaporation and crystallisation [154]. As mentioned in part Section 5.1.2, electrodialytic technologies have great potential in carrying out some of those steps as they limit more energy-consuming thermal treatments. In this part, we present recent ED strategies with potential for ZLD aiming at the maximal reuse of liquid effluents. 5.2.1. Municipal Wastewaters The valorization of municipal effluents in medium to low-purity grade water exhibits huge potential for agriculture as it decreases the use of potentially drinkable water such as ground and river water. An original strategy for wastewater treatment with potential for ZLD was implemented by Lu and He [307]. As depicted in Figure 25, it consists in coupling an osmotic membrane bioreactor (OMBR) with conventional ED and RO. The OMBR includes biological treatment in the feed compartment of a conventional FO in order to improve water recovery. However, salt accumulation in FO tends to induce flux reduction and scaling in such systems, even leading to reverse fluxes of soluble species [298]. The addition of an ED step to desalinate the feed mitigated this phenomenon while allowing salt concentration in the draw. Satisfactory water flux was achieved over 24 days for moderate energy consumption (1.9 kWh/m3) [307]. A similar process was tested by Zou and He [308] as part of a strategy for water reclamation and fertigation (fertilization of crops by using water-soluble nutrients in irrigation waters [298]). Using a fertilizer (diammonium phosphate) solution as the draw leads to efficient water recovery (96.6% with 0.8 kWh/m3 power consumption). Moreover, at the end of the process the low NaCl content of the fertilizer-containing draw promotes its potential at larger scale for fertigation, therefore reducing liquid effluents to be disposed. In areas prone to fresh water deficiency like Egypt, untreated drainage wastewaters have been mixed directly with the Nile river water for irrigation. While it reduces the waste of potable water, the poor water quality is detrimental to crops. Wastewater treatment using electrodialytic technologies has been investigated by Abou-Shady [309]PDF Image | Electrodialytic Processes
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