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Membranes 2020, 10, 221 50 of 72 Other SED-based approaches were studied to generate acid and base using wastewaters from chemical or desalination plants which could then be resupplied in commodity chemicals. SED-EDBM processes reached a current efficiency of 70% and 1.75 kWh/kg NaOH in terms of energy consumption [316]. The monovalent-enriched and divalent enriched streams produced by SED led to HCl and H2SO4, respectively, after EDBM. High purities were reached for power consumption of 4.2–5.8 kWh/kg of product [317]. The highest NaOH and HCl purities (99.99%) were achieved by BMSED (integration of BM in the SED stack) [167]. However further investigation dealing with the eco-efficiency of the process would be required. The treatment of hydrometallurgy effluents was investigated by means of SED-IX [318]. SED was used to produce an effluent containing arsenic in anionic form (H AsO −) and a copper/zinc-rich 24 stream. Zn2+ and Cu2+ were then separated by two successive ion-exchange steps using solvent impregnated resins leading to 70% and 98% recovery, respectively. This strategy shows great potential as an alternative method for copper sourcing as copper mines are a major polluting industry. Tailings and other mine wastes tend to release heavy metals leading to ground water contamination. ED is currently under study as a way to remediate tailings. However, despite their recent LCA of tailings management in Norway copper mines, Song et al. [319] were unable to clearly demonstrate the feasibility of ED. A ZLD strategy coupling IX and EDBM was evaluated to remediate desulfurization wastewaters from coal-fired plants by removing major scaling contributors Ca2+ and Mg2+ [320]. The acid/base produced were suitable for resin regeneration. Polymer-flooding is used for enhanced oil recovery of oil deposit. Brackish water remains the major ingredient for such process leading to large quantities of oil/polymer/brine wastewaters. Sosa-Fernandez et al. [132] demonstrated the feasibility of electrodialytic treatment to remediate those wastewaters with low-energy costs (4.0 kWh/m3) and reuse them for polymer-flooding, thus limiting brine disposal. Improvements regarding the treatment of wastewaters generated by fossil energy industries (oil, gas, coal . . . ) provide relevant technological insights. However, the sustainability of such applications is difficult to support due to the ecological flaws inherent to the recovery of fossil resources and their combustion for energy production. 5.3. ED Strategies for the Recovery of High-Purity Chemicals Ideally the recovery of chemicals should be associated with strategies dealing with sea water desalination or wastewater depollution for better eco-efficiency, as exemplified in the previous parts. Yet, ZLD is not always attainable. In order to review relevant studies focusing on final products and their sustainable uses, this part puts the emphasis on strategies leading to high-purity products with potential for a direct utilization as high-value chemicals. As previously mentioned, electrodialytic technologies demonstrates suitable feasibility for the separation of nutrients used in agriculture as fertilizers. The retrieved chemicals are water-soluble supporting their potential for fertigation [298]. Potassium sulfate (K2SO4) was produced by SED [321] and EDM coupled with a NF module (EDM-NF) [145]. As a cheaper alternative to other chlorine-free potassium fertilizers, it still requires extensive processing with high energy costs to be purified. The EDM-NF strategy proposed by Trivedi et al. [145] was clearly oriented towards eco-efficiency. With current efficiencies of about 70%, they obtain K2SO4 with >99% purity at 80 g/L, although the final NF flux was half of its initial value. The low energy consumption of the EDM step (1.3 kWh/kg) is promising for eventual scale-up considerations which should include the energy evaluation of NF and additional evaporation steps. The market of struvite (MgNH4PO4·6H2O) as an ammonium and phosphate slow-release fertilizer has been increasing for the past decades. Researchers developed strategies to ensure low cost and environment-friendly production [156]. Although sea water can be readily used for struvite production by precipitation due to its high magnesium content, it would generate large amount of wastewater. To solve this issue, Ghyselbrecht et al. [166] proposed to selectively concentrate magnesium from North Sea water by SED before struvite production. Figure 26 display a possible process for struvite precipitation from marine Mg2+. While the authors managed to double Mg2+ concentration in real sea water, an increase in Ca2+ was also observed which couldPDF Image | Electrodialytic Processes
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