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Membranes 2020, 10, 221 51 of 72 impair the efficiency of struvite precipitation [166]. Other strategies involve the cyclic combination of ED and SED with a struvite reactor for phosphate and ammonium recovery (up to 100% and 94%, respectively) [164,322]. Phosphate recovery with integrated SED/crystallization process was lower while it led to a 44% purity [163]. Focusing on nitrogen (NH4+) recovery form wastewaters, Ward et al. [323] implemented ED at pilot-scale and used struvite crystallization as a pre-treatment. The concentration of the final product was eight-times higher than in the initial feed. The current efficiency of 76% and energy consumption of 4.9 kWh/kg N obtained at pilot-scale demonstrated the economic feasibility and potential eco-efficiency of the process. More recently, Gao et al. [324] investigated struvite precipitation by an integrated EDBM-MCDI process. EDBM efficiently increased the pH of the ammonium and phosphate-enriched stream to enhance precipitation with MgCl2 in the struvite reactor. Figure 26 integrates this strategy for struvite precipitation with Mg from sea water. While 100% PO43− was recovered as solid struvite, the excess NH4+ contained in the resulting effluent was further concentrated by MCDI leading to a 77% global recovery and low energy consumption (3.2 kWh/kg N). Figure 26. Strategy for struvite production from sea water and wastewater (adapted from Gao et al. [324]). SED: selectrodialysis, EDBM: electrodialysis with bipolar membranes; CEDI: continuous deionization; MCDI: membrane capacitive deionization. The segregation of nitrogen and phosphorus nutrients has also been studied as part of volatile fatty acids (VFAs) recovery. VFAs such as acetic acid are valuable chemicals that can be used as monomers in biopolymer synthesis and other high-value added applications. They can be sustainably produced from biomass using mixed culture bioreactor. A strategy was devised for their recovery whilst retaining nutrients to support continuous fermentation in the bioreactor [325]. The extraction of VFAs relied on a polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) membrane stack while their continuous concentration was achieved with ED. Nutrients in the form of PO43−, NO33− and NH4+ were successfully retained in the dilute stream, and 98% of acetic acid was recovered in the concentrate. High-purity inorganic salts have been produced by efficient systems combining membrane and electromembrane technologies. An integrated NF-ED process named “Fracsis” was investigated for the production of Ca2+ and SO42− and led to 98% and 96.6% rejections, respectively, at pH 6.5 for which no scaling was observed [326]. The higher water recovery (77%) compared to RO and the moderate energy requirements (8 kWh/m3) demonstrates the potential of “Fracsis” for the production of high-purity salts and the reclamation of fresh water.PDF Image | Electrodialytic Processes
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