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Membranes 2020, 10, 221 52 of 72 Lithium is not used exclusively for the production of Li-ion batteries, but also involved in CO2 purification and nuclear energy production among others [191,225]. As ionic lithium is naturally occurring in salt lakes along with other cations such as Mg2+, extraction technologies have been developed, among which ED exhibit the lowest energy consumption [168]. Jiang et al. [191] implemented an ED-EEDBM in order to produce high-purity LiOH. Conventional ED helped concentrate Li2CO3 (4 times), while EEDBM yielded LiOH with 95% purity. The high current efficiency achieved (99%) and moderate energy consumption (8 kWh/kg) led to better performances than ED alone. Using a similar strategy, Qiu et al. [168] produced LiOH by SED-BMSED. Using monovalent permselective IEMs led to an improved selectivity for Li+ vs. other cations Mg2+ and Ca2+, both during pre-concentration by SED and LiOH production with BMSED. Even though current densities were lower than for the previous process (41% SED, 58% BMSED), energy consumption was still moderate (3.8 kWh/kg SED, 5.5 kWh/kg BMSED) and the final purity higher with close to 99%. It demonstrates the potential of the process as an eco-efficient strategy for lithium production. 5.4. Eco-Efficient Production of Food and Nutraceuticals with ED ED technologies are particularly suitable for the low-margin high-volume food industry. They allow a significant increase in the value of food products at low cost. Already implemented in pilot plants for several applications including depollution and production of organic acids, EDBM shows great potential for new avenues in food processing [128,327]. Moreover, the emergence of EDFM (see Section 4.10) this past decade, is providing specific separation applications leading to high-added value products. 5.4.1. Fruit Juice Deacidification of cranberry juice by electrodialytic processes was extensively studied as a green strategy to improve its health benefits. The reduction of its organic acid content combined with its high polyphenol content gives treated cranberry juice potential as a nutraceutical. Furthermore, it was demonstrated that removal of cranberry juice protects against disruption of in vitro intestinal cell barrier integrity which is mainly due to citric acid [328], and that a minimal deacidification rate of 37% was necessary to reach this level of protection [329]. From the several approaches tested (EDBM, EDUF, EDBMUF), EDBM with AEMs yielded the best performance [329]. The eco-efficiency of the strategy was evaluated at a semi-pilot scale by Faucher et al. [330]. The process involved the recycling of the recovery solution generated during electro-deacidification of the juice. It led to reduce energy consumption almost by half without any impact on the product quality. To further improve the eco-efficiency of the process, PEF could be applied as they showed positive impact on organic acid removal by decreasing concentration polarization, thus increasing efficiency [122]. Life cycle assessments of the production of deacidified cranberry juice were carried out [284,331]. Extracted cranberries were identified as the main co-product of the process due to their potential high added-value after several drying steps. Interestingly, the authors also brought to light pomace as another co-product due to its interest as a fertilizer. Organic acids could be recovery for use as preservative in food-related applications. Compared to non-deacidified juice and juice processed using IX, cranberry juice was more eco-efficiently produced by EDBM when proper scenarios were considered [284]. This process was also found slightly more eco-efficient than production by salt precipitation, especially since this last process had a negative impact on the quality of the product and prevented organic acid recovery [331]. These results are of great significance for the field as they support the relevance of ED technologies towards sustainable practises. 5.4.2. Dairy Products The research of sustainable ways for the production of bioactive peptides is a major challenge for the food industry. Although these protein-derived compounds exhibit remarkable biological properties, they can be sensitive to external factors (temperature, light, oxidation . . . ). An electro-membranePDF Image | Electrodialytic Processes
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