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Membranes 2020, 10, 221 54 of 72 Chen et al. [336] applied EDBM to salty whey to generate high-purity HCl and NaOH as cleaning chemicals. Their simple strategy to recycle 9% of the produced base as a salt precipitation pre-treatment improved performance (3.0–3.6 mol/L purity and 6.6 kWh/kg energy consumption) and led to a 99% demineralization of the whey effluent which could then be valorized as a source of bioactive peptides. 5.4.3. Meat and Fish Industries Commercial ingredients derived from food waste are of limited occurrence when excluding dairy by-products. However, recent works have investigated by-products from fish and meat processing as a source of high-value molecules [332]. Adopting an eco-efficiency approach similar to biorefinery strategies, researchers demonstrated that ED technologies, especially EDUF could be integrated in those industries to support a circular food economy and improve the eco-efficiency of the all production line. Indeed, the circular economy is an economy that operates in a loop, thus avoiding waste. Its objective is to produce goods while strongly limiting the consumption of raw materials and non-renewable energy sources. Przybylski et al. [337] worked on an eco-efficient strategy to recycle blood generated during meat processing into meat preservatives exhibiting antimicrobial activity. While plasma, the colorless fraction is valorized, cruor, the remaining 40% is often discarded. The authors produced a cruor peptic hydrolysate for treatment by EDUF in order to recover cationic antimicrobial peptides. The fraction was obtained at the lowest energy consumption (3.4–5 kWh/kg) when using 5–8% hemoglobin in the initial feed. The good antimicrobial results led them to optimize the process by studying the influence of the degree of hydrolysis (DH) [338] and the pH [339]. By targeting TSKYR (α 137–141, 653 Da), an antimicrobial peptide with interesting properties for meat taste preservation, they found that pH 9 increased the purity of the fraction, while a 5% DH allowed a 13-fold concentration of TSKYR compared to the initial hydrolysate. In keeping with the concept of circular economy, the blood waste from slaughterhouses can thus be recycled into raw materials of the meat industry for production of bioproducts with improved functions. Several studies are dealing with similar processes for the valorization of fish by-products [236,238,239,340]. In general, a multi-step strategy is implemented: recovery of the by-product (including deboning, homogenization), preparation of the hydrolysate (enzymatic hydrolysis), selective separation into bioactive fractions by EDUF, concentration and drying for preservation. Salmon and rainbow trout frames produced peptide fractions exhibiting antidiabetic [236] and also antihypertensive activities [340]. Due to the intrinsic nature of these by-products, fouling and long-term maintenance of the membranes remains a challenge. However, the future developments in EDUF-PEF are expected to improve membrane lifespan to reduce costs and limit fouling for better performances [105]. 6. Conclusions and Perspectives Electrodialytic technologies are everywhere: water purification, energy production, depollution, agrochemical, biotechnology, food industries, etc. However, it appears that due to the new advances in sciences, some well-known ED technologies are regaining great amounts of interest in the present economical context and ecological crisis. Indeed, the new knowledge on pulsed electric fields, electroconvective vortices, overlimiting conditions and reversal mode as well as their recent demonstrations of applications is boosting this renewed interest for some of these old ED processes. However, hurdles are still high when dealing with scale-ups and real-life conditions. Pulsed electric fields, electroconvective vortices, salinity gradient and selectivity of membranes will still be the main focuses for future studies to improve their implementation in the industry. Furthermore, looking at the current research trends, potable water and wastewater treatment to answer the world population demand as well as the production of value-added bioactive products in a circular economy due to the health concerns and the growing aging population will probably be the main applications to be developed and improved.PDF Image | Electrodialytic Processes
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