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very low concentrations of toxic ions, such as lead or arsenic, and the concentration has to be reduced to an almost negligible level, whereas the situation for desalination of brackish or seawater is entirely different in that the starting concentrations are often well above 10,000 mg/L and the goal is to reduce the concentration to 600 mg/L (and anything above 1000 mg/L is deemed unfit) [2]. In addition to needing to provide better access to potable water, humanity is also producing billions of gallons of waste water that needs to be treated, not only because this is one viable source for potable water in areas stricken by scarcity, but because a lot of this waste water is unsafe to release into the environment without prior treat- ment. For example, in the U.S. alone, close to 900 billion gallons of produced water from hydraulic fracturing were produced in 2007 [17]. This produced water is envi- ronmentally problematic and needs to be treated before being discharged back into the water cycle. The current infrastructure of waste water treatment facilities lacks sufficient capacity and the produced water is also often times transported over large distances, which has producers looking for better methods that allow for produced water treatment at the production site. A major driver in the cost of desalination is the amount of electrical or thermal energy that is required to perform the desalination, which is particularly true for treatment of sources contaminated with toxic ions. With capacities for desalination increasing very quickly and contaminated water sources becoming a growing problem, research and development is continually underway to improve existing methods and to discover and develop new ones [120, 27]. 1.1 Overview of Water Ion Removal Techniques and Applications The type of ion removal technologies used often depends on the available feedwater and hence the specific goal of the system. However, in many systems, the water needs to be treated and cleaned before the feedwater can enter the desalination step. For 26PDF Image | Shock Electrodialysis for Water Purification and Electrostatic Correlations
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