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example, while produced water for hydraulic fracturing containes very high concen- trations of ionic dissolved solids [48], it often also contains non-ionic organic species and larger particles. In most treatment plants, the removal of large particles and the reduction of oil and grease, the total organic carbon concentration (TOC), and the iron concentration is essential before introducing the stream into a demineralization system containing a membrane, such as reverse osmosis (RO), since these systems are highly susceptible to membrane fouling. Systems commonly used for de-oiling are API Separators, deep bed filters, hydroclones, induced gas flotation, and ultra- filtration and microfiltration. Systems often used for primary particle removal are sedimentation systems, multimedia sand filters, and cartridge filters. Furthermore, the iron concentration can be reduced by aeration and sedimentation, lime soda ash softening, or ion exchange. In addition, any remaining organic compounds can be removed by biological treatment or activated carbon treatment. For desalination of seawater, brackish water, and other water with high concen- trations of dissolved ionic species, such a produced water from hydraulic fracturing, common technologies that are used are reverse osmosis (RO), multi-stage flash (MSF), and electrodialysis (ED) [120, 94, 77]. RO utilizes a membrane that only allows the flow of water through it and prevents the flow of ions. RO systems can then remove ions from the feed solution by pressurizing it to above its osmotic pressure and hence driving the water that is contained in the feed solution through the membrane to the fresh water side. Despite having to pressurize the feedwater to about 2-3 times its osmotic pressure in order to overcome friction losses and to maintain an adequate flow rate, RO is still the dominant and most energy efficient technology for seawater technology, requiring only 3-4 kWh/m3 of fresh water (at about 50% water recover) [90, 27, 120, 38]. In contrast, MSF, on a crude level, simply boils the feedwater and condenses the collected steam as fresh water. MSF tries to accomplish this at rea- sonable energy efficiency by boiling the water in a set of stages of decreasing pressure in order to decrease the boiling point and hence decrease the necessary energy input [26]. In each stage only a fraction of the feedwater is vaporized and the brine that is left behind is passed on to the next stage. To further increase the energy efficiency, 27PDF Image | Shock Electrodialysis for Water Purification and Electrostatic Correlations
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