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MSF also often uses the produced steam to heat up the incoming feedwater. However, despite these efforts, MSF often requires 2-3 times the energy that RO does [93] and hence are often located in countries with low energy costs, since the capital costs for MSF plants are much lower than for an RO plant [120]. Lastly, in electrodialysis (ED), an applied electric potential difference across an ion-exchange membrane drives salt ions from the solution on one side of the membrane to the solution on the other side [84] . This process is usually carried out in an ED stack, in which alternating anion and cation exchange membranes are placed between two electrodes. Applying a current to this stack will produce alternating streams of permeate and concen- trate. In essence, upon imposing an electrical potential difference on the system, the cations will migrate towards the negatively charged cathode and the anions will mi- grate towards the positively charged anode. Cations will be allowed to pass through cation-selective membranes, whereas they will be stopped as soon as they reach an anion-selective membrane. The converse is true for the anions. Therefore, the anions and cations are eventually stopped from further migration to the electrodes by the membranes, which allows the formation of concentrated and desalted streams. It is important to note that overall bulk neutrality is generally maintained, meaning that the number of anion and cation charge equivalents transferred to the concentrated stream are equal. Despite the fact that ED has been around for several decades, it still suffers from limitations and poses big challenges in research. An overview of the state of research on ED was recently given by Nikonenko et al [77]. Other methods that are often used in niche areas or that are currently under development are capac- itive deionization [79], which relies on the adsorption and subsequent release of ions on the electrodes of the electrochemical system, and technologies that leverage ion- concentration polarization, such as the microfluidic desalination system developed by Kim et al [52, 54, 55, 68, 98, 121, 122, 123] or shock electrodialysis [22, 24, 67, 92], which is discussed in this thesis, which are somewhat similar to electrodialysis sys- tems, but are able to use only a single type of ion-exchange membrane. Some other methods currently used in underdeveloped regions stricken by lack of potable water to obtain cleaner and safer water are water distillation of sea water by sunlight and 28PDF Image | Shock Electrodialysis for Water Purification and Electrostatic Correlations
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