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of the initial anion charge concentration in the feed stream. This optimum strikes the balance between facilitating conduction of current through the system (which is difficult at low surface charge) and still being able to get high levels of bulk depletion (which becomes difficult at high surface charges). 1.3.4 Applications of Concentration Shocks Concentration shocks can be used in several contexts [123]. One application that has been explored extensively is chemical and biological preconcentration of molecules and proteins in simple microchannels [63, 62, 108, 54, 53, 59, 57] or focusing of molecules in more complex channels [109], in which over a million-fold increase in biomolecule concentration has been observed. Furthermore, this phenomenon has been used to build microfluidic devices that use non-equilibrium electro-osmotic flow (electro-osmosis of the second kind, in which the total fluid velocity scales with the electric field squared) to pump fluids at higher volumetric flow rates [56]. In addition, Kim et al have also used this phenomenon to create a mixing device, in which the strong electric field gradients create strong vortices [51]. Lastly, one other application of this shock phenomenon is its use in water purification or desalination. This appli- cation was demonstrated by Kim et al [55] in a microfluidic device, which was quite effective in reducing water from a salinity of ∼500mM to <10mM. However, applying this shock phenomenon in a microfluidic device leaves no obvious way to scale up operations. In contrast, using what was explored by Mani and Bazant [67], Deng et al [23] developed a non-continuous copper-deposition system that is composed of a microporous material (glass frit) that interfaces with a nanoporous membrane [7] that was successful in both showing the kind of overlimiting current discussed above and also in reducing the concentration of the copper-based electrolyte in the water by several orders of magnitude. However, latter was only possible when the flow rate of the outlet was slow enough, which is likely due to its geometry. Since the current and flow are applied in the same direction, the flow has to be slower than diffusion in order to avoid pulling water from in front of the shock out of the device (in essence distorting the shock to the point where the shock front is no longer beyond the outlet). 39PDF Image | Shock Electrodialysis for Water Purification and Electrostatic Correlations
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