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interest in wastewater treatment technologies. To address the challenges in these and other applications, extensive research has been underway to develop improved water treatment technologies and methods. In addition to continuing research on RO and related technologies, the unique capabilities of electrochemical systems have attracted renewed attention [84, 77, 82, 76]. This renewed focus on electrochemical systems has led to several new technolo- gies that may prove to be excellent replacements or complements to current tech- nologies to achieve lower cost solutions for water treatment. One of these new technologies is shock electrodialysis (SED) [5, 22, 21, 92], which in many ways is related to ED but is based on the science of deionization shocks in porous media [123, 68, 121, 67, 25, 24, 114, 85, 55, 70]. In essence, SED makes use of the phenomena that occur when the electrolyte is flown through a confined weakly-charged geometry, such as a weakly-charged porous medium or microchannel with charged walls, that is placed between two ion-selective elements, such as an ion-exchange membrane or an electrode. Passing a current through this type of system, regardless of whether a confining element or a bulk electrolyte is placed between these ion-selective el- ements, will produces zones of ion depletion and enrichment in order to maintain electroneutrality near these ion-selective elements. Classically, the amount of current that can be passed through this system is limited by diffusion. This limit occurs when the concentration near one of the ion-selective elements reaches zero. How- ever, it has been shown that overlimiting currents are possible in bulk electrolytes due to various electrokinetic and electrochemical phenomena [76], such as electro- osmotic instabilities [119, 87, 61, 86], current-induced membrane discharge [4], or exaltation effects. However, more interestingly, the two mechanisms for overlimiting current are quite different in systems in which the electrolyte is put in a confined weakly-charged geometry [25, 75, 70, 22, 43], whose surface has the opposite charge as the species that is able to pass through the ion-selective element. One of these mechanisms is based on electromigration (surface conduction) [114, 24], which domi- nates in very confined geometries (generally submicron to a few microns characteristic pore/channel size), while the other mechanism is based on electro-osmosis (surface 44PDF Image | Shock Electrodialysis for Water Purification and Electrostatic Correlations
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